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RURAL  SCHOOL 
NDTHG  COMMUNITY 

HUVVARD  T    i  I  • 


,tT-  oe''  below 


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^ANCH, 

MIFORNIA, 

-        / 

•r  ,,,  CALIF. 


EDUCATIONAL     METHODS 


College  Study  and  College  Life.  By 
Bernard  C.  Ewer. 

American  Education.  By  Sidney  G. 
Fisher. 

The  Philosophical  Basis  of  Educa- 
tion.   By  Rolland  Merritt  Shreves. 
The    Privilege    of    Education.      By 
George  L.  Jackson. 

The  Rural  School  and  the  Commu- 
nity. By  Howard  T.  Lewis. 
Some  Fundamental  Verities  in  Edu- 
cation. By  Maximilian  P.  E.  Groszmann 
The  School  System  of  Norway.  By 
David  Allen  Anderson. 
Education  Among  the  Jews.  By  Paul 
E.  Kretzmann. 

Public  Education  in  Germany  and  in 
THE  United  States.  By  L.  R.  Klemm. 
Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher. 
By  William  Jerusalem.  Translated  by 
Charles  F.  Sanders. 

RICHARD   G.   BADGER,   PUBLISHER,   BOSTON 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  [ 

AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

A   STUDY   OF   THE   METHODS   AND 
APPLICATION  OF  THE  SOCIAL  SURVEY 


BY 

HOWARD  T.  LEWIS 

Head  of  the  Department  of 

Economics  and  Political 

Science,  University 

of  Idaho 


ARIlctveRlTAlTl 


BOSTON 

RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

THE   GORHAM   PRESS 


COPTRIGHT,  1918,  BY  RiCHARD  G.  BaDGER 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Made  in  the  United  States  of  America 


The  Gorham  Press,  Boston,  U.  S.  A. 


u    ^ 


Gnp.  I 


DEDICATED 

TO  MY  MOTHER 

AND 

TO  MY  WIFE 


PREFACE 

WITHIN  the  past  few  years,  particularly,  there 
has  been  a  tremendous  amount  of  material  writ- 
ten upon  the  rural  problem.     It  is  well  that  it  should 
*?  be  so,  for  the  field  has  been  so  largely  neglected  that 
\  many  people  do  not  know  that  there  is  a  rural  prob- 
lem;  and  even  now  men  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to 
the  fundamental  issue  in  that  intricate   and   complex 
situation.     It  Would  seem,  however,  that  for  the  pres- 
ent generation  the  question  is  an  economic  one,  and 
V     particularly  one  of  accounting  and  marketing;  that 
i)\ .  for  the  future  generation  it  will  be  a  question  of  edu- 
cation, using  the  word  in  the  somewhat  restricted  sense. 
In  studying  the  question,  therefore,  it  is  well  that 
we  should   remember   that   a   concrete   application   of 
sociological  principles  is  never  out  of  place.     The  diffi- 
culty is  that  we  are  prone  to  apply  them  in  a  hasty 
and  vague  manner,  without  first  finding  the  actual  facts 
involved.     It  is  the  old,  old  story  of  thinking  we  know, 
when  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  know  little  about  the  situ- 
ation, and  what  we  do  know  we  have  in  a  most  unsatis- 
factory form. 

The  object  of  the  present  study  is  to  indicate  a  way 
in  which  we  may  ascertain  these  things,  and,  further, 
to  suggest  some  uses  to  which  these  facts  may  be  put. 
This  book  is  not  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  full  and  com- 
plete study  of  social  surveying.  It  is  intended  merely 
to  be  suggestive  of  what  may  be  done  in  rural  educa- 
tion if  teachers  have  patience  and  the  proper  training. 
That  the  book  may  furnish  material  for  thought, 

5 


6  Preface 

therefore,  is  all  that  the  author  hopes  to  accomplish. 
If  it  lead  to  definite  action  and  to  a  better  correlation 
between  school  and  community,  he  will  then  be  satis- 
fied indeed. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  kindness  of 
the  Board  of  Home  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  for  permission  to  use  a  number  of  diagrams 
printed  as  a  part  of  the  Ohio  Rural  Life  Survey 
reports,  especially  in  "Church  Growth  and  Decline  in 
Ohio" ;  and  also  the  kindness  jof  the  "Educational 
Review"  for  permission  to  use  parts  of  an  article  by 
the  present  writer  entitled,  "The  Social  Survey  in 
Rural  Education,"  which  appeared  in  that  magazine 
in  October,  1914.  Free  use  has  also  been  made  of  a 
number  of  bulletins  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I   Introduction 11 

II   The  Function  of  the  Survey 19 

III  The  Teacher  and  the  Survey      ....  40 

IV  The  Teacher  and  the  Curriculum    .     .     .  55 
V   The  Problem  of  the  Adult     .....  66 

VI   The  Training  of  the  Teacher      ....  73 

Bibliography 85 

Index 89 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  AND  THE 
COMMUNITY 


"All  knowledge  is  lost  that  ends  in  the  knowing." 

— John  RusTcvn. 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  AND 
THE  COMMUNITY 


CHAPTER  I 

INTEODUCTION 

IT  may  seem  trite  and  common-place  to  say  that  facts 
are  fundamental  in  dealing  with  questions  of  public 
policy.  Yet  the  truth  is  that  too  many  people  are 
either  unused  to  or  incapable  of  forming  judgment  with 
reference  to  public  questions  that  are  based  -upon 
facts.  In  matters  of  scientific  research  the  fact  is  the 
one  thing  sought  at  all  hazards.  All  mechanical  arts 
rest  upon  certain  facts  which,  if  recognized,  bring 
industrial  efficiency;  denied,  bring  ruin  and  disaster 
upon  those  who  ignore  them.  A  group  of  men  acting 
as  the  directors  of  a  business  concern  will  insist  upon 
having  all  of  the  facts  as  to  markets,  cost  of  produc- 
tion, and  the  like  before  they  will  even  attempt  to  lay 
down  a  financial  policy  or  outline  a  business  campaign. 
Yet  strange  as  it  may  seem,  these  same  men,  dealing 
with  matters  of  a  social  character,  seem  willing  to  rest 
their  judgment  upon  rumor,  guess-work,  and  even 
prejudice.  They  seem  willing  to  believe  demagogic 
statement  as  though  it  were  the  voice  of  God.  They 
argue  on  the  side  they  want  to  believe,  nor  stop  to  seek 
the  facts  on  the  other  side.  They  read  newspapers 
that  tell  them  the  things  they  want  to  be  told.     They 

11 


12         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

listen  to  speakers  who  tell  them  the  things  they  already 
believe  in.  One  may  take  almost  any  great  public 
issue  which  has  been  before  the  people  of  late  years  as 
an  example.  The  writer  is  urging  neither  the  wisdom 
nor  the  justice  of  woman  suffrage,  prohibition,  nor 
the  LaFollette  Seamen's  law  when  he  submits  that  the 
judgment  of  the  greater  number  of  people  with  refer- 
ence to  them  is  not  the  outcome  of  sober  reasoning, 
indulged  in  after  a  search  for  the  facts.  Yet  under  a 
form  of  government  such  as  ours  these  questions  have 
to  be  settled  by  the  people,  either  indirectly  through 
the  selection  of  representatives,  or  directly  through 
the  initiative  and  referendum.  Facts  available  to 
every  one  are  neither  sought  nor  demanded,  and  men 
accept  the  arguments  of  others  as  their  own  reasoning, 
and  their  conclusions  as  of  their  own  mental  activity. 
Leaders  reason  and  debate,  while  the  mass  of  the  elec- 
torate delude  themselves  with  the  thought  that  the 
results  are  of  their  own  making.  In  one  sense  this  is 
true,  but  not  in  the  sense  which  they  think. 

If  in  scientific  questions,  in  industrial  questions,  in 
financial  questions,  facts  are  absolutely  essential,  it 
would  seem  little  less  than  criminal  that  questions  of 
social  well-being  should  be  settled  by  guess-work  and 
prejudice. 

Nowhere  is  this  general  principle — that  all  public 
policies  should  rest  upon  all  available  facts — more 
applicable  in  education.  Fortunately  within  recent 
years  this  has  come  to  be  more  and  more  recognized. 
The  development  of  experimental  psychology  and  the 
concrete  application  of  the  findings  in  this  great  field 
is  but  one  illustration.  A  more  pertinent  one  for  our 
purpose,  in  some  respects,  is  the  attempt  to  adjust  the 
school  to  the  actual  world  through  the  introduction 
of  the  industrial  arts.     It  is  felt  that  such  a  policy 


Introduction  13 

reduces  the  school  mortality,  that  it  better  fits  the  child 
for  the  struggle  he  is  later  to  engage  in,  and  that  the 
educational  process  itself  becomes  easier  when  con- 
cepts are  developed  through  concrete  things. 

This  little  book  deals  especially  wdth  this  phase  of 
the  question — that  of  the  adaptation  of  the  school  to 
the  community  and  of  the  use  of  the  school  by  the  com- 
munity. More  particularly,  it  has  to  do  with  tliis 
great  work  in  education  in  so  far  as  it  touches  the 
rural  communities.  In  truth,  "Facts  in  Rural  Life — 
Their  Determination  and  Utilization"  might  easily  have 
served  as  a  title  for  the  present  study. 

Now  the  rural  problem  of  to-day  is  a  three-fold  one 
— technical,  economic,  and  social.  The  technical  has 
to  do  with  such  things  as  drainage  and  irrigation,  fer- 
tilization, feeds  and  feeding,  farm  machinery ;  the  eco- 
nomic has  to  do  with  buying  and  selling,  marketing 
processes,  rural  credit ;  the  social  deals  with  educa- 
tional, cultural,  and  religious  questions,  including 
schools,  religious  organizations,  lodges,  amusements, 
questions  of  population,  pathological  conditions,  and 
the  like. 

Of  these  three  themes,  it  may  be  said  with  a  good 
deal  of  truth  that,  though  oftimes  neglected,  the  value, 
need,  and  place  of  the  purely  technical  questions  have 
been  receiving  in  times  past  the  bulk  of  the  attention 
by  men  whose  influence  counts  most.  And  within  more 
recent  times — and  especially  since  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  war — men  have  devoted  a  very  large  amount 
of  attention  to  the  purely  economic  phase  (as  defined 
above)  of  rural  life.  Agricultural  colleges,  agricul- 
tural instruction  in  the  secondary  schools,  university 
extension  work,  government  bulletins,  and  numerous 
other  agencies  open  to  the  utilization  of  the  public,  are 
doing  all  within  their  power  to  arouse  the  farmers  to 


14         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

a  just  appreciation  of  the  need  of  conservation  and 
proper  direction  of  our  economic  forces.  And  those 
in  whose  interest  these  things  are  being  done  are 
responding  well  indeed.  True,  many  farmers  fail  to 
understand  and  to  be  reached,  but  at  least  one  may 
say  that  more  of  them  are  awake  to  this  aspect  of 
the  problem  than  ever  before,  and  that  those  who  will 
not  be  aroused  are  more  than  likely,  under  the  increas- 
ing strain  of  competition,  to  find  themselves  outdis- 
tanced in  the  race.  Yet,  while  all  this  is  appreciated 
to  the  fullest  extent,  the  economic  fact  remains  that  so 
far  as  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  our  farmers 
are  concerned,  agriculture  as  a  business  proposition  is 
a  business  failure,  if  due  allowance  is  made  for  interest 
on  the  invested  capital,  and  the  labor  time  of  the  farmer 
himself. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  rural  problem  in 
all  of  its  manifold  aspects.  Fundamentally,  as  H.  W. 
Wiley  says,  it  is  a  matter  of  making  farming  pay  as 
large  or  larger  profits  than  urban  pursuits.^ 

In  view  of  the  technical  advance,  therefore,  the  prop- 
osition resolves  itself  increasingly  into  an  economic  one. 
Nor  is  this  of  necessity  inconsistent  with  Profesor 
Gillette's  view  that  the  difficulty  is  primarily  one  of 
the  point  of  view.^  The  essence  of  the  whole  matter 
is  that  the  farmer  has  not  taught  himself  to  look  upon 
farming  as  a  business  proposition  in  the  same  light  as 
the  manufacturer  or  merchant  looks  upon  his  business. 
The  farmer  has  too  largely  failed  to  look  beyond  the 
mere  matter  of  productivity  itself,  and  has  neglected 
the  equally  important  questions  of  credit  and  mar- 
keting.^ 

^Century  Magazine,  83:623. 

*  See  Annals  of  the  American  Academy,  March,  1912. 

*  Proof  of  this  statement  is  abimdant,  but  it  cannot  be  discusse<l 
here.     See  Effingham,  Illinois,  Democrat,  May  18,  1916. 


Introduction  15 

In  fact,  until  the  farmer  can  learn  to  look  over  his 
own  fence  to  the  world  outside ;  until  he  can  come  to 
see  that  farming  is  a  business,  with  all  of  the  dignity, 
responsibilities,  and  importance  of  other  businesses ; 
until  he  can  see  that  farming  calls  for  just  as  intense 
a  concentration  of  thought  and  energy,  as  great  a 
study  of  conditions,  as  rigid  a  training;  until  he  can 
be  shown  the  competition  with  which  he  has  to  meet 
is  just  as  keen  as  in  other  lines  of  human  endeavor,  he 
must  continue  to  occupy  an  inferior  position.* 

It  is  not,  however,  with  this  aspect  of  the  rural 
problem  that  we  are  here  primarily  concerned.  Tech- 
nical processes  and  business  problems  lie  beyond  the 
scope  of  this  book.  In  fact,  there  are  many  who  con- 
tend that  the  economic  aspect  is  not  the  fundamental 
weakness ;  who  argue  that  the  problem  of  education  is 
more  significant  as  a  line  of  endeavor.  The  Country 
Life  Commission  appointed  by  President  Roosevelt  said 
(p.  52)  that  "The  schools  are  held  to  be  largely  respon- 
sible for  ineffective  farming,  low  ideals,  and  the  drift 
to  town."  Bailey,  for  instance,  calls  the  school  the 
"Fundamental  Problem."  ^  Whether  or  not  this  is  so, 
it  is  at  least  true  that  it  is  equally  important.  After 
all,  it  would  seem  to  be  a  matter  of  whether  the  empha- 
sis should  be  on  the  present  or  the  future  generation. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  reason 
why  either  should  be  neglected. 

Nowhere  is  the  essential  unity  of  human  problems 
more  clearly  shown  than  just  here,  where,  if  anywhere, 
the    questions    involved    are    mutually    interdependent. 

*  Compare  Powell  Cooperation  in  Agriculture,  p.  14.  The  posi- 
tion assumed  by  the  present  writer  is  by  no  means  antagonistic 
to  that  of  Mr.  Powell.  As  Mr.  Powell  himself  suggests,  however, 
the  above  constitutes  a  pre-requisite  to  permanent  betterment  of 
any  other  type. 

"  See  his  Country  Life  Movement,  pp.  61  ff. 


16         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

Thus,  if  economic  advance  is  dependent  upon  edu- 
cation, so  is  the  successful  school  dependent  upon  a 
satisfactory  income.  The  whole  matter  is  apt  to  run 
in  a  vicious  circle — low  incomes,  poor  schools,  unsatis- 
factory instruction,  lack  of  inspiration  and  training, 
and  thence  back  to  low  incomes.  In  too  many  in- 
stances the  only  alternative  for  the  young  man  or 
woman  in  the  country,  who  earnestly  desires  better 
things,  is  an  urban  education.  The  farmer  too  often 
either  will  not  or  cannot — the  result  has  usually  been 
the  same  in  either  case — contribute  adequately  to  his 
school  system. 

So,  after  all,  in  a  very  real  sense,  Bailey  is  right,  for 
there  is  no  means  other  than  through  educational  effort 
of  some  kind,  that  "better  farming"  can  come  to  be  a 
reality ;  and  until  a  community  can  get  its  adults 
together  for  a  discussion  of  common  problems,  and 
can  train  its  children  to  appreciate  the  situation  in  its 
true  light,  permanent  uplift  of  a  general  character 
cannot  be  hoped  for.  And  in  this  systematic  develop- 
ment, no  one  can  occupy  a  more  significant  position 
than  the  teacher,  if  he  but  try.  Not  that  a  teacher 
needs  to  be  an  agricultural  expert — far  from  it — but 
he  can  provide  "the  motive  power." 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  fact  that  there 
is  not  place  where  the  unity  of  social  life  is  more  real 
than  in  the  rural  community.  Such  being  the  case,  it 
would  seem  to  be  in  accord  with  the  best  interests  of 
all  concerned  to  have  some  kind  of  a  clearing-house  for 
all  of  the  activities  of  the  community.  At  the  present 
time  the  function  performed  by  such  an  institution  is 
too  little  emphasized.  The  State  and  Federal  govern- 
ments furnish  a  large  mass  of  material  on  the  technique 
of  farming,  but  much  of  it  is  purely  technical,  and  most 
of  it  demands  local  application  and  adaptation.     Clean 


Introduction  17 

recreation  and  social  functions  are  furnished  by  various 
unrelated  agencies  and  hence  are  too  often  unsuccess- 
ful. The  educational  work  itself  is  often  hampered  by 
criticism  from  a  good  many  people  not  sympathetically 
acquainted  with  the  actual  facts  of  the  case  or  with 
the  object  sought  by  the  teacher.  The  whole  situation 
is  one  that  calls  for  some  kind  of  a  unifying  agency. 
These  problems  remain  unsolved — or  only  partially 
solved — because  no  single  agency  is  provided  whose 
function  it  is  to  get  the  facts  of  the  situation,  to  present 
them  in  the  proper  perspective,  and  to  get  the  citizens 
of  the  community  together  for  a  common  discussion  of 
thcm/'^  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher,  this  is 
unfortunate  for  several  reasons,  primarily  because  he 
and  the  people  in  whose  ultimate  interests  he  is  labor- 
ing are  both  working  in  the  dark,  but  also  because 
the  immediate  technical  work  of  the  school  lacks  adapt- 
ability. 

Unfortunately,  though  constantly  emphasized  in  the 
abstract,  too  few  rural  workers  are  willing  to  suggest 
concrete  lines  of  procedure.  Perhaps,  in  part,  this  is 
a  scholastic  weakness — a  failure  of  the  Normal  school. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  the  fact  remains  that  the  average 
teacher  feels  hopelessly  at  sea,  knowing  neither  where 
to  begin  nor  how  to  proceed.  In  the  city  this 
inability  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  not  so  significant, 
since  there  are  any  number  of  other  agencies 
willing  and  able  to  take  up  the  task,  and  many 
strong  men  and  women  capable  of  leading.  Neither 
of  these  things  are  as  true  of  the  open  country.  There 
are  too  often  no  trained  and  efficient  leaders,  and  the 
only  agency  (outside  of  the  school)  is  apt  to  be  the 
church.  The  church  is  always  at  a  disadvantage  in 
this  respect,  for  once  let  it  undertake  the  task  and  it 
is  accused  of  proselyting.     Moreover,  the  competition 


18         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

between  rural  churches  is  usually  most  keen,  and  coop- 
eration almost  out  of  the  question,  even  assuming  that 
the  ministers  are  capable  of  taking  the  initiative  in 
rural  regeneration — an  assumption  too  often  not  in 
accord  with  the  facts.  The  teacher,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a  community  employee,  paid  out  of  the  general 
taxes.  He  is  a  "community  character,"  and  presumed 
to  be  enlightened,  broad-minded,  and  an  aggressive 
leader.  These  are  but  some  of  the  reasons  why  the 
teacher  may  well  be  the  impelling  factor. 

With  the  theory  of  the  situation  as  thus  outlined, 
there  cannot  be  a  great  deal  of  disagreement.  The 
fact  of  the  rural  problem,  the  need  of  attacking  it  in 
a  scientific  manner,  and  the  need  of  a  propelling  and 
directing  force,  do  not  admit  serious  adverse  criti- 
cism. But,  granting  so  much,  the  greater  problem  still 
confronts  us,  namely,  how  is  the  work  to  be  done?  Is 
this  general  accumulation  of  facts  a  part  of  the 
teacher's  function?  Has  he  the  time  and  the  means 
for  the  performance  of  it?  What  shall  he  do  with  the 
bare  facts  after  they  are  once  in  his  possession?  These 
are  questions  less  easily  answered.  Yet  an  answer  is 
imperative,  for  if  this  be  not  the  proper  agency,  people 
should  know  it  and  look  elsewhere.  Not  that  the  same 
agency  need  be  employed  everywhere — this  is  a  matter 
to  be  determined  by  local  circumstances,  but  is  it 
generally  true?  In  any  case,  the  teacher  must  be  a 
part  of  the  movement,  and  this  part  demands  consider- 
ation, at  least. 

It  is  to  an  analysis  of  this  question  that  this  little 
work  is  devoted. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE    FUNCTION    OF    THE    SURVEY 

"In  order  to  arrive  at  all  the  significant  facts  n/pon  which,  an 
adequate  constructive  program  may  be  based,  the  active  co- 
operaiion  of  all  is  necessary." 

^  I  ^HERE  has  been  within  the  past  few  years  much 
-■■  laudable  effort  made  to  get  at  the  facts  involved 
in  questions  of  dispute.  This  tendency  is  far  from 
being  confined  to  any  one  phase  of  the  rural  problem 
and  far  less  has  it  been  restricted  to  this  field  alone. 
In  broader  matters  of  public  policy,  surveys  and  inves- 
tigations seem  at  last  to  have  come  into  their  own. 
Men,  in  times  past,  have  been  too  willing  to  follow  the 
old  rule  of  "nine-tenths  guess  and  one-tenth  knowl- 
edge." Fortunately,  society  is  insisting  more  and 
more  upon  nine-tenths  knowledge  and  one-tenth  esti- 
mate. 

There  is  scarcely  a  field  of  human  endeavor  in  which 
this  tendency  has  not  appeared.  The  census  itself  has 
long  been  illustrative  of  the  desire  to  gain  facts,  but  it 
never  has  been  so  scientifically  organized  nor  so  exten- 
sively used  as  it  is  to-day ;  and  further  reforms  are 
promised.  In  fact,  so  much  data  is  collected  by  the 
enumerators  that  its  publication  is  thereby  delayed 
so  long  as  to  rob  it  of  at  least  a  part  of  its  value.  In 
legislative  matters,  too,  there  has  never  been  a  time 
when  so  many  committees  have  been  appointed  for  the 
investigation  of  subjects  of  public  concern.  Scarcely 
a  law  is  enacted  dealing  with  any  subject,  that  is  not 

19 


20         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commtmity 

based  upon  extensive  research.  The  work  of  the 
National  Monetary  Commission  and  of  the  Tariff 
Commission  occur  to  one  at  once  in  this  connection. 
The  whole  field  of  efficiency  engineering  is  based  upon 
this  modern  tendency.^  Time  was  when  men  guessed  at 
the  proper  speed  of  a  metal  lathe ;  to-day,  a  slide-rule  is 
utilized  and  waste  is  eliminated.  Twenty-five  years 
ago,  if  a  telephone  company  wished  to  establish  a 
branch  exchange,  its  promoters  built  where  they 
thought  the  city  was  going  to  expand;  now  a  careful 
study  of  the  movement  of  local  population  is  made,  and 
statistics  thus  compiled  form  the  basis  for  a  scien- 
tific judgment.  Once,  men  about  to  lease  a  building 
in  the  business  section  of  the  city  located  on  the  corner 
where  they  thought  the  traffic  was  the  heaviest;  to-day 
an  accurate  count  is  made  of  the  passing  pedestrians 
for  a  week  at  a  time,  and  they  know  where  trade  is  the 
briskest. 

If  this  has  been  true  in  business  and  in  industrial  pur- 
suits, it  is  scarcely  less  true  in  social  matters.  As 
Professor  Gillette  has  pointed  out,  the  work  of  Charles 
Booth  in  London,  published  in  his  "Life  and  Labor  of 
the  People  of  London,"  may  well  be  called  the  begin- 
ning of  the  modern  survey.  City  life  of  the  present 
day  is  so  complicated,  there  are  so  many  currents  and 
cross-currents  to  be  reckoned  with  that  no  construc- 
tive reform  can  well  be  undertaken  without  first  secur- 
ing adequate  and  accurate  data.  Success  may  come 
without  this,  but  it  will  come  blindly  and  largely  by 
accident.  The  comprehensive  surveys  at  Buffalo, 
Pittsburgh,  and  Cleveland  are  the  best  known  examples 
of  this  activity.  Whether  it  be  for  housing  reform, 
the   elimination   of   disease,   or   the   construction    of  a 

^  See  an  article  by  the  author  in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Jan. 
1913,  "Problem  of  Eflaciency  of  Labor,"  especially  p.  157  ff. 


The  Function  of  the  Survey  9,1 

public  utility,  the  need  of  adequate  facts  is  equally 
great.  Where  human  welfare  is -at  stake,  men  cannot 
well  afford  to  guess  at  solutions. 

That  the  problem  is  of  a  different  character  does  not 
mean  that  the  need  is  any  less  in  the  work  of  rural 
reconstruction.  Yet  here,  as  is  so  apt  to  be  the  case, 
the  new  tendency  was  late  in  making  itself  felt.  There 
are  a  number  of  reasons  for  this.  In  part  it  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  problem  was  less  apparent,  and 
thought  to  be  less  complex.  Moreover,  the  city  is  a 
more  compact  whole  with  definite  boundaries.  But 
rural  life  surveys  are  fast  becoming  recognized  as  a 
necessary  prerequisite  for  social  advance  in  the  country 
as  truly  as  in  the  city.-  Up  to  the  present  time 
these  have  been  confined  to  special  lines  of  work,  par- 
ticularly religious  and  educational.  True,  surveys  of 
a  general  nature  have  been  made  of  particular  com- 
munities, but  they  have  been  few  and  unrelated.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  work  of  President  Roosevelt's 
Country  Life  Commission,  though  extremely  valuable, 
was  too  broad  to  be  more  than  merely  suggestive. 

As  has  been  indicated,  almost  the  only  surveys   of 

*A  recent  writer  in  the  American  Journal  of  Sociology  (vol. 
17,  p.  647if.)  has  suggested  the  following  reasons  for  making  a 
survey  of  rural  and  small  communities,  among  others: — (1)  all 
social  problems  are  inter-related  problems,  and  need  to  be  studied 
as  such.  Educational  problems,  for  instance,  cannot  be  satis- 
factorilj-  dealt  with  if  other  phases  of  community  life  are 
neglected.  (2)  In  a  small  community,  a  large  force  of  trained 
workers  is  not  needed.  There  are  plenty  of  problems  to  be  dealt 
with,  but  the  getting  of  the  facts  regarding  them  is  not  overly 
difficult.  (3)  Every  community  is  ditferent  from  every  other 
community,  which  emphasizes  the  need  at  the  same  time  that  it 
maintains  interest.  (4)  A  present-day  consideration  of  the  situa- 
tion would  prevent  many  evils  from  arising  in  the  future.  (5) 
The  small  community  is  more  tv^pical  of  American  life  than  the 
large  one.  (6)  Intimate  acquaintanceship  on  the  part  of  the 
workers  leads  to  more  accurate  results  than  are  possible  in  larger 
undertakings. 


22         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 


The  Dark  Cloud  of  LrommcrciaVism 
Of  5(^8  cKojxh     Sooa\s 


htXi  during  /\   a  ^ear 


are  monej^-maklng  events 
Snould  tne  church  k)^  its   suji)|^ort  f 


I  lie  Absentee   Mmist 
and 

Cnurcn     E-Tiic'ienc^ 
XS8    cKorcKes 


cr 


eon-residtni 
ministej- 


^f('% 

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resident 
minister 

■ 

■ 

1 

I         I  Growing 


5% 

W(tt%  no 
mmtstu' 


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The  Function  of  the  Survey 
LAND  MONOPOLY 


V&      0}  till  Firmer^  Onti 


Vl     <A  tt>e  Linci 


23 


Rural    Church   JJecltne 
in    Noytwwestern    Onio 


Of  100 

CUorchcS 


Of  |tfq 
0|»en-CounYr*| 
Churches 


^1%  1X% 

diTe  v\ot   &rowing 


Ihe  rlake-sKift   oc\\oo\    leacW 

Certificates  held  h\j  10^  rural 
school  teachers  in  1^11-/9/2 


R>i>  life 
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For  5  se^re 
For  3(je»rs 
For  1  ^«»rs  I 


m  10.9% 


for  I  \|eir^^L^ 


€3.7^  For  one  ^e»r  onlvj 


Z3 


24  The  Rural  Scliool  and  tJie  Commwnity 

NEED  FOR  FEDERATION 

Ine   Vva^  of  Salvation  for  Omall  Unurches 
Of  churches  witli  a  ttiemtersni/i  of  :• 

IVoUu  iS-tH  5a-94  lOO-liHf  /SOomo. 

0.056         io.^%  37.3%  eo.h%  73.1% 

are      Growing 


CONSOLIDATION  NEEDED 

Of  the  rural  schools 


'^^^^^^^MMMMMMMM', 

|87%n»ve  3/0-30  recitations  ferdavf^ 

«^^M^^MM^;M^M^ 

Decrease  m  Improved  Farm  Lands 

I,0II30G    acres  m  iqoo 

935.033    acres  m  iqio 

1.()  %  decrease 


Land  Becoming  a  Luxury/ 


In  1900 
In  19/0 


3S.5<]  l^er  acre 
73/.  H   jier  icre 


86. 8  %  increase 


The  Function  of  the  Survey  25 

rural  conditions  that  have  been  made,  have  been  with 
a  particular  end  in  view.  They  have  largely  been 
either  religious  or  educational.  Of  the  two,  it  can 
scarcely  be  gainsaid,  as  a  general  thing,  that  the  more 
effective  of  the  two  has  been  the  religious  survey,  and 
tliis  for  the  reason  that  those  in  charge  of  the  work 
have  seen  the  necessity  of  correlating  the  church  sur- 
vey with  one  of  the  community — a  thing  which  most 
educational  surveyors  have  failed  to  do. 

A  good  illustration  of  this  contrast — perhaps  the 
best  one — may  be  found  in  the  state  of  Ohio.  Two 
comprehensive  surveys  have  been  made  of  this  state 
within  the  past  few  j^ears,  one  by  the  Ohio  Rural  Life 
Commission  and  one  by  the  State  Department  of  Public 
Instruction.  The  central  thought  of  this  chapter  is 
so  clearly  portrayed  by  these  two  pieces  of  work  that 
a  little  attention  paid  to  them  will  be  well  worth  while. 

The  Ohio  Rural  Life  Survey  was  directed  by  the 
Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life  of  the  Board 
of  Home  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.^ 
Though  some  additional  territory  was  covered  during 
the  summer  of  1913,  the  territory  covered  in  1912  was 
sufficiently  broad  to  make  the  results  of  value,  and 
the  method  did  not  differ  essentially  from  that  followed 
during  the  succeeding  summer.  During  1912  twenty- 
one  truly  representative  counties  of  the  state  were 
covered.  The  accompanying  charts  (See  pages  22,  23, 
and  24)  indicate  the  results  sufficiently  for  our  present 
pui'pose,  and  at  the  same  time  suggest  an  attractive 
form  in  which  to  place  the  data  before  the  people. 

From  our  present  point  of  view,  however,  the  thing 
in  which  we  are  interested  is  not  so  much  the  results 
as    the   plan.     The   essential   thing  to   note    is,    that 

*  Address  156  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  City.    The  work  was  under 
the  immediate  direction  of  Dr.  Warren  H.  Wilson. 


26         The  Rural  School  and  tJie  Commimity 

VILLAGE  COMMUNITY  > 
1.  Public  Library  or  Reading  Room. 

a.  Number  of  volumes? Proportion  fiction? 

b.  Number  of  members  in  village? In  country?  .... 

c.  What  cooperation  with  village  schools? 

Country  schools? 

d.  Average  daily  attendance  of  girls  (under  15)? 

(boys  under  15)? women  (15-30)? 

men  (15-30)? women  (30  and  over)?  . . 

men  (30  and  (tver)? 

e.  Date  as  to  circulation,  1911-1912: 

(1)  Fiction? 

(2)  Other? 


2.  What  Local  Health  Ordinances  exist? 
How  well  enforced? 


8.  Describe  fully  village  lockup Are  tramps  housed 

free  of  charge? How  many,  June  1,  1912 — ^May  31.  1913? 

What  cases  before  Mayor  or  Justice  of  Peace  same  period? 


4.  Get  list  of  girls  who  need  vocational  training. 
6.  Get  list  of  girls  who  have  left  school. 


6.  Who  are  the  girl  leaders  in  this  community? 

{Give  reaaonafoT  each  aelection) 

*One  of  a  number  of  blanks  covering  this  topic. 

though  the  survey  was  intended  primarily  for  furnish- 
ing data  upon  which  to  judge  the  church,  it  was  by  no 
means  confined  to  a  study  of  the  church  plant  and 
equipment.  In  fact,  were  one  to  guess  the  object  of 
the  work  from  the  various  kinds  of  data  collected,  one 
would  sometimes  be  at  a  loss  to  know  what  the  central 
theme  might  be.  For  information  was  collected, 
checked,  tabulated,  and  presented  in  attractive  form 
upon  farm  incomes ;  retired  farmers ;  moving-picture 
shows ;  the  life,  habits,  and  tastes  of  country  girls ;  the 
conditions  of  the  community  as  to  libraries,  health 
ordinances,    the    village    lock-up,    etc. ;    topography, 


The  Function  of  the  Survey  27 

STUDY  OF  MOTION  PICTURE  SHOWS 

Name  of  village? Population? No.  M.  P.  places? 

Name  of  theatre? Owned  by  local  interest? Outside  interest? 

Admission  ....  cents.     Times   per   week   open? Seating 

apacity? Total  admission  per  week? Average  admission  per 

afternoon? Evening? Proportion  of  audience  under  16? 

Proportion  of  audience  from  country? Ventilation  of  hall? Adequate 

e  xits? Appearance  of  hall  neat? 


Subjec'  of  film? Maker? General  Film 

Co.? Independent? General   Character:     Geographical? 

Current  Events? Historical? Drama-Comedy? Farce? 

Tragedy? Melodrama? Other  forms  of  drama? 

Artistic  merits:    Clear  picture? Scenic  effects? Good  acting? 

Educational  value:     Indicate 

Points  of  moral  value? 

Immoral  qualities? 

Describe  the  general  effect  of  the  film  (summarize  the  plot  if  necessary).     Is  it  moral? 
Immoral? Insipid? 


Remarks 

Investigator Date 


natural  wealth,  and  kinds  of  farming;  shifting  of  popu- 
lation; as  well  as  special  information  bearing  on  Sun- 
day Schools,  church  equipment,  and  the  minister. 
The  accompanying  sample  blanks  give  some  idea  of  the 
breadth  of  the  undertaking. 

Let  us  compare  with  this  the  survey  made  by  the 
state  itself  in  regard  to  its  educational  system.  The 
work  was  done  in  1913,  and  as  a  study  of  the  schools 
themselves,  as  isolated  factors,  the  survey  was  one  of 
the  most  thorough  and  painstaking  ever  undertaken. 
Those  acquainted  with  the  details  of  that  survey  will 
testify  to  the  fact  that  the  questions  asked  were  lack- 
ing neither  in  completeness  nor  in  definiteness.     They 


28         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commtmity 


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S2         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

covered  every  phase  of  the  question,  from  the  size  of 
the  grounds  and  the  material  of  the  building  itself,  to 
the  nature  of  the  towels  used.  A  total  of  over  240 
questions  were  asked  on  one  set  of  blanks  alone.* 

If  one  were  to  ask  the  purpose  of  this  wide  survey, 
the  answer  would  be  at  once, — to  gain  increased  effi- 
ciency. As  the  director  of  the  survey  put  it:  "This 
survey  affects  directly  and  immediately  the  welfare  of 
900,000  children,  the  efficient  expenditure  of 
$30,000,000  annually,  and  the  operation  to  the  best 
advantage  of  a  $75,000,000  plant."  Now,  increased 
efficiency,  though  it  may  seem  trite  to  say  it,  is  largely 
a  matter  of  adjustment.  So  many  times  has  the  ques- 
tion of  readjustment  been  raised  in  teachers'  conven- 
tions and  elsewhere  that  the  mere  mention  of  the  word 
is  sufficient  to  provoke  a  smile.  Yet  withal,  we  can 
scarcely  give  it  too  much  attention,  if  we  mean  hy  it 
the  proper  thing.  The  real  difficulty  is  that  too  many 
times  we  have  either  proceeded  blindly  to  "adjust 
something,"  and  naturally  enough  we  have  blundered, 
or  we  have  contented  ourselves  with  mere  talking  about 
the  value  of  adjustment.  To  illustrate,  Ohio  has,  as 
has  already  been  suggested,  made  a  state-wide  survey. 
The  object  professed  is  that  we  may  know  in  what  con- 
dition the  schools  really  are,  not  what  our  belief  con- 
cerning them  is,  not  what  we  think  they  are,  but 
what  actually  exists, — and  to  the  end  that  they  may  be 
better  adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the  various  communi- 
ties, made  more  uniform  in  quality,  and  rendered  gen- 
erally more  efficient.  This  work  has  been  well  done, 
and  its  value  is  tremendous,  if  it  is  used  in  the  righi  way. 
But  note  that  it  has  little  or  no  value  in  and  of  itself, 
aside    from    a    consideration    of    mere    interest.     As 

*  Note  the  character  of  the  data  called  for  in  the  illustrative 
blank. 


The  Function  of  the  Survey  33 

Ruskin  says,  "All  knowledge  is  lost  that  ends  in  the 
knowing,"  and  it  would  be  of  no  value  at  all,  from  the 
viewpoint  of  reconstruction,  to  know  that  14.5^  of  the 
rural  schools  in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  are 
one  hundred  years  old  or  over.  Nor  does  it  aid  in  and 
of  itself  to  know  that  "65%  of  the  schools  were  found 
to  have  no  adjustable  school  furniture,  floors  were 
seldom  scrubbed  or  oiled,  few  opportunities  were 
offered  pupils  to  heat  anything  for  the  mid-day  lunch, 
and  in  few  cases  were  there  any  special  apparatus  for 
ventilation."  ^  If,  therefore,  this  information  is  used 
to  accomplish  nothing  more  than  the  mere  dropping 
from  the  curriculum  certain  courses  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  certain  others ;  if  we  consider  that  we  have  done 
our  duty  if  we  introduce  hygiene,  nature  study,  and 
domestic  science,  taught  everywhere  in  the  same  way 
from  the  same  texts,  splendid  though  these  may  be ;  if 
the  examination  of  a  school  building  leads  merely  to 
the  construction  of  a  better  building;  the  result  will  at 
least  be  a  failure  to  accomplish  all  that  might  be 
achieved  by  this  expenditure  of  eff^ort.  For,  note  that 
the  end  of  education  is  not  the  curriculum,  but  the 
people  of  this  and  the  coming  generation;  and  if  we 
limit  our  attention,  as  we  are  so  apt  to  do  in  our  inves- 
tigations, to  the  school-house,  we  commit  an  unpardon- 
able error. 

An  illustration  may  make  the  point  more  clear.  "I 
dare  say,"  said  Frederick  W.  Taylor  before  the  Tuck 
School  Conference  on  Scientific  Management,  "that  you 
think  there  is  no  science  in  shoveling  dirt.  .  .  .  There 
is,  however,  a  best  way  of  doing  everything.  .  .  .  The 
workers  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Company,  for  instance, 

'  This  is  not  offered  as  a  criticism  of  the  work  of  Dr.  Aspinwall, 
of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Worcester,  who  realizes  as  fully  as 
any  one  the  value  of  a  correlation  between  scImoI  and  com- 
munity. 


34  Tlie  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

almost  all  owned  their  own  shovels,  and  I  have  seen 
thera  go  day  after  day  to  the  same  shovel  for  every 
kind  of  work,  from  shoveling  rice  coal,  three  and  one- 
half  pounds  to  the  shovel  load,  to  shoveling  heavy  wet 
ore,  thirty-eight  pounds  to  the  shovel-load.  Is  three 
and  one-half  pounds  right  or  is  thirty-eight  pounds 
right?  ....  We  began  by  taking  the  maximum  load 
on  the  shovel  and  counting  shovelfuls  all  da}^  long  and 
weighing  the  tonnage  at  the  end  of  the  day.  I  think 
there  was  about  thirty-eight  pounds  to  the  shovel. 
We  found  how  much  those  men  could  do  when  they  were 
shoveling  at  thirty-eight  pounds  to  the  shovel  on  the 
average.  And  then  we  got  shorter  shovels  holding 
about  thirty-four  pounds,  and  measured  the  tonnage 
per  day,  and  it  was  greater  than  when  they  were  using 

the  thirty-eight  pound  shovel Again  we  reduced 

the  load  to  thirty  pounds,  and  they  did  still  a  greater 
tonnage,  again  to  twenty-eight  pounds,  and  another 
increase,  and  the  load  kept  on  increasing  as  we  dimin- 
ished the  shovel-load  until  we  reached  about  twenty-one 
pounds ;  at  twenty-one  pounds  the  man  did  his  biggest 
day's  work.  With  twenty  pounds,  with  eighteen  pounds, 
with  seventeen,  and  with  fourteen,  they  did  again  a 
smaller  day's  work.  .  .  .  The  foundation  of  that  part 
of  the  science  of  shoveling  then,  lies  in  always  giving  a 
shoveler  a  shovel  which  will  hold  twenty-one  pounds, 
whatever  material  he  is  using. 

"What  were  the  consequences  of  that.''  In  the  Beth- 
lehem Steel  Works  we  had  to  build  a  shovel  room  for 
our  common  laborers.  Up  to  that  time  the  men  had 
owned  their  own  shovels.  We  had  to  equip  this  room 
with  eight  or  ten  kinds  of  shovels,  so  that  whatever  a 
man  went  at,  whether  rice  coal  on  the  one  hand  or  very 
heavy  ore  on  the  other,  he  would  have  just  a  twenty-one 
pound  load." 


The  Function  of  the  Survey  35 

The  point  to  this  illustration  lies  in  the  fact  that 
Mr.  Taylor  did  not  stop  when  he  had  collected  his 
data  on  the  kind  of  shovel,  the  length  of  handle,  and 
size  of  the  scoop,  the  weight  of  a  shovelful  of  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  ore,  and  the  amount  that  an  average 
man  could  shovel  in  a  day.  Nor  did  he  blindly  choose 
a  half  a  dozen  shovels  of  various  sizes,  and  tell  his  men 
to  pick  the  one  they  thought  would  best  do  the  work. 
On  the  contrary,  he  took  twenty-one  pounds  of  each 
kind  of  material  that  had  to  be  shoveled,  and  selected 
a  shovel  with  just  the  right  size  of  scoop,  and  finally, 
under  the  direction  of  one  who  was  held  responsible 
for  this  phase  of  the  work,  a  particular  shovel  was 
given  out  each  day  to  each  individual,  to  correspond 
to  the  kind  of  ore  he  was  to  shovel.  Not  until  this  was 
done  did  Mr.  Taylor  consider  his  duty  accomplished. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  went  even  further  than  tliis, 
and  taught  the  men  how  to  use  the  shovels  in  order 
best  to  conserve  their  energy. 

So,  too,  ought  it  be  in  education.  The  State  of  Ohio 
knows  practically  all  that  there  is  to  know  about  its 
school  situation  from  a  purely  mechanical  point  of 
view.  The  school  is  not  attaining  its  full  degree  of 
efficiency — so  much  indeed  is  known.  It  has  been  de- 
termined how  many  one-room  school  buildings  there  are 
within  the  State,  how  much  the  teachers  are  paid,  how 
inadequately  the  school  plant  is  equipped,  and  all  this. 
A  high  standard  of  efficiency  has  been  kept  in  mind  as 
an  ideal  throughout  all  this.  In  the  terms  of  the  illus- 
tration, we  know  where  the  shovels  come  from  and  what 
the  ideal  load  is.  But  do  we  know  enough  about  the 
material  to  be  shoveled  to  be  sure  how  large  a  scoop 
it  is  going  to  take  in  every  instance  to  get  just  twenty- 
one  pounds — no  more  and  no  less.''  Or  are  we,  know- 
ing how  large  the  load  ought  to  be,  to  guess  at  the 


36         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commwnity 

weight  of  the  ore — to  try  several  shovels  until  we  think 
we  are  right?  In  short,  what  do  we  know  about  the 
people  and  their  life — these  for  whom  all  this  has  been 
done?  ^  Do  we  know  the  particular  circumstances  and 
the  peculiarities  of  each  individual  community  to  which 
we  are  asked  to  adjust  this  reconstructed  school? 
And  if  not,  then  has  not  half  of  the  problem  been 
lost  sight  of? 

"But,"  it  is  urged,  "we  know  all  of  this.  It  is  per- 
fectly obvious  that  we  cannot  adapt  things  when  we 
do  not  know  to  what  we  are  to  adapt  them.  But  we 
do  know  all  about  our  community,  we  are  acquainted 
with  the  parents  of  our  children,  we  know  what  the 
crops  are,  and  we  know  that  one  of  our  churches  is 
not  as  strong  as  the  other." 

This  is  well  and  good  so  far  as  it  goes.  But  how 
many  reputed  successful,  can  answer  the  following  list 
of  questions,  selected  at  random,  not  from  the  general 
impression  only,  but  with  a  reasonable  degree  of 
accuracy  ? 

1.  Has  the  population  of  your  township  been  in- 
creasing or  diminishing  within  the  past  tea  years,  and 
by  what  percentage? 

2.  What  per  cent  of  the  farmers  in  the  locality  are 
renters?     On  what  terms  do  they  rent? 

3.  Of  the  renters,  how  many  of  them  are  such  be- 
cause of  the  high  cost  of  land  and  how  many  are 
merely  using  this  means  as  a  step  toward  ultimate 
ownership  ? 

"The  Report  of  the  Ohio  State  School  Survey  Commission  is  a 
voluminous  book  of  352  pages.  It  is  a  veritable  mine  of  infor- 
mation regarding  the  school  system  of  the  state.  Out  qf  the 
twenty-two  sections  into  which  it  is  divided,  however,  but  two  are 
directly  concerned  with  these  other  factors,  a  total  of  45  pages 
out  of  the  352.  Of  these  45,  2  are  devoted  to  "General  Community 
Conditions"  and  43  to  "Outside  Cooperation  with  Rural  Schools." 


The  Function  of  the  Survey  37 

4.  Is  the  racial  complexion  of  the  place  changing, 
in  what  way,  and  how  rapidly?  Is  the  change  for 
better  or  for  worse? 

5.  Where  is  the  local  produce  marketed,  and  at 
what  price? 

6.  Are  there  any  efforts  at  cooperation?  Have 
any  such  attempts  failed  in  times  past,  and  why? 

7.  How  many  of  the  farmers  make  use  of  available 
government  bulletins?  How  many  take  agricultural 
papers?     Other  papers? 

8.  How  many  churches  are  there  in  the  community  ? 
How  many  are  growing?  If  declining,  what  is  the 
cause  of  their  decay?  How  many  boys  and  how  many 
girls  are  in  the  Sunday  Schools? 

9.  What  is  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  com- 
munity ? 

10.  How  many  of  the  farmers  borrow  money,  on 
what  security,  from  whom,  and  at  what  rate? 

11.  As  to  the  new  farmers,  where  do  they  come 
from,  why  did  they  leave  their  former  places  of  resi- 
dence, and  were  they  ever  farmers  before? 

12.  What  percentage  of  the  people  are  church 
members?  Of  those  who'  are  not  (a)  what  is  the 
reason,  (b)  have  they  a  church  preference? 

13.  How  much  has  the  township  spent  on  improve- 
ments within  the  past  five  years,  and  on  what? 

14.  What  is  the  tax  rate  this  year? 

15  What  is  the  condition  of  any  charitable  or  cor- 
rectional institution  in  the  township?  By  whom  is  it 
supported,  how  many  inmates  are  there,  and  how  is  the 
superintendent  chosen? 

16.  In  what  way  does  the  school  cooperate  with 
the  other  social  agencies  in  the  community? 

17.  To  whom  do  you  report  a  case  of  economic 
distress?  i.GH'^jO 


38  The  Rural  School  and  tlie  Commumity 

18.  What  are  the  occupations  of  the  township 
trustees? 

19.  What  is  the  average  income  of  the  farmers  in 
the  community,  and  how  many  of  them  fail  to  get  a 
comfortable  living,  using  that  term  in  its  generally 
accepted  sense.'' 

20.  Are  there  any  crops  that  might  be  profitably 
introduced  into  the  community.''  What  is  the  greatest 
need  of  the  soil.''     How  does  land  sell,  per  acre? 

21.  Is  the  locality  predominately  Republican  or 
Democratic?  How  many  Socialists  are  there?  Of 
what  type? 

22.  How  many  qualified  voters  are  there  in  the 
township?  What  percentage  of  them  vote  at  any  elec- 
tion ? 

Remember,  it  is  not  asked  what  we  think  about 
these  things,  but  what  we  know.  And  we  must  not 
answer  for  our  own  community  on  the  basis  of  what 
is  true  in  some  other  locality  with  which  we  chance  to 
be  acquainted.  In  short,  in  what  position  are  we  to 
adjust  that  school,  of  which  we  know  so  much,  to  the 
community? 

To  put  the  question  thus  baldly  is  in  itself  sufficient 
to  point  the  significance  of  the  social  survey  to  the 
educational  forces  of  the  state.  In  other  lines  of  edu- 
cational activity  this  has  been  recognized.  Men  have 
made  intensive  studies  of  conditions  in  order  to  develop 
a  system  of  industrial  education,  of  continuation 
schools,  and  of  technical  schools  adapted  to  changed 
conditions.  But  the  rural  aspect  has  been  largely 
neglected.  Yet  it  is  obvious  that  we  can  no  longer,  as 
the  Utopian  Socialists  tried  to  do,  develop  an  institu- 
tion that  is  everywhere  and  always  to  be  the  same,  if 
we  intend  that  institution  to  be  of  the  greatest  service 
to  humanity.     Nor  can  we,  by  a  study  of  that  insti- 


The  Function  of  the  Survey  39 

tution  alone,  have  adequate  information  in  regard  to 
the  community  into  which  it  is  to  fit.  These  things 
we  can  know  only  by  actual,  painstaking  investigation. 
And  this,  in  brief,  is  the  place  of  the  social  survey  in 
education. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  SURVEY 

T  T  is  evident  from  the  discussion  thus  far,  that  any 
•*■  effort  to  adjust  our  schools  to  the  communities 
which  they  are  to  serve,  must  rest  primarily  upon  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  all  of  the  factors  involved ;  that 
this  knowledge  must  be  more  than  mere  impression  and 
behef ;  and  that  a  survey  of  the  community,  in  an  eif ort 
to  ascertain  these  facts,  cannot  be  adequate  if  it  stops 
with  a  detailed  study  of  the  school  system  alone.  So 
much,  in  theory  at  least,  will  doubtless  be  granted  by 
any  careful  student  of  the  problem.  But  in  some 
senses,  the  greater  part  of  the  task  still  lies  before 
us — namely,  who  is  to  undertake  the  work  and  how  is 
it  to  be  done.''  We  may,  therefore,  very  properly  pass 
on  to  a  consideration  of  these  questions. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  there  is  no  one 
to  whom  we  should  be  able  to  look  with  greater  confi- 
dence in  this  connection,  than  to  the  teacher  himself. -"^ 
Two  difficulties,  however,  confront  us, — one  being  the 
question  of  time  at  the  teacher's  disposal,  and  the 
other  being  the  method  of  procedure.  In  one  sense 
these  are  merely  different  aspects  of  the  same  problem, 
for  the  matter  of  time  required  depends  in  no  small 
measure  upon  the  method  used.  They  are  not,  how- 
ever, altogether  the  same  question,  and  for  this  reason 
they  may  well  be  treated  separately. 

Undoubtedly,  a  bald  statement  that  the  majority  of 
^  See  Chapter  I.    Especially  pp.  5-6. 

40 


The  Teacher  and  tlie  Survey  41 

teachers  have  ample  time  to  make  a  social  surv^ey,  would 
raise  at  once  a  vast  chorus  of  denial.  Yet  it  is  so 
easy  to  take  it  for  granted  that  the  teacher's  time  is 
already  well  filled,  that  it  is  not  altogether  out  of  place 
to  examine  the  matter  a  little  further  in  an  effort  to  see 
just  how  much  of  truth  lies  in  the  assertion. 

At  the  very  outset,  it  may  be  well  to  grant  that  the 
statement  as  made,  is  subject  to  several  limitations. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  unquestionably  true,  that  a 
young  pedagog,  during  his  first  year  in  the  field,  does 
have  his  time  pretty  well  filled  up.  The  arrangement 
and  preparation  of  his  work  is  all  upon  his  hands  to  a 
greater  degree  than  it  will  be  at  any  subsequent  stage 
of  his  career.  Questions  of  discipline  call  for  more 
thought  and  care  than  will  be  required  later  on.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  belittle  the  truth  and  importance 
of  the  value  of  study  and  discipline,  nor  is  their  neces- 
sity open  to  successful  dispute.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  these  tilings  are  true  to  the  same  extent, 
only  during  the  first  year, — or  at  the  most,  during  the 
first  two  years  of  one's  teaching  experience. 

The  teacher's  time  is  also  well  occupied  at  times  of 
examinations  and  special  entertainments,  such  as  are 
given,  and  rightly  so,  on  such  occasions  as  Christmas 
and  Commencement.  At  such  times  the  teacher  has 
little  opportunity  or  energy  to  devote  to  what  may 
seem  to  be  an  outside  interest.  Here  it  should  be  noted 
that  these  are  special  occasions,  and  not  the  usual  rou- 
tine. It  may  also  be  added  that  many  a  school  is 
lessened  in  efficiency  by  an  undtie  number  of  these  occa- 
sions for  activities.  Man}'  a  school  would  be  infinitely 
better  off  were  these  "unusual"  occasions  reduced  in 
number  and  were  the  regular  routine  of  reports  and 
the  like  given  a  more  thorough  over-hauling. 

A  third  limitation  upon  the  teacher's  time  may  also 


42  The  Rural  School  and  tlie  Commumty 

be  conceded.  Every  teacher  is  expected  to  enter  into 
the  life  of  the  community,  and  consequently  social  de- 
mands are  not  to  be  overlooked. 

When  all  this  is  said,  however,  it  still  leaves  the  es- 
sence of  the  statement  untouched.  No  more  erroneous 
impression  is  extant  in  educational  matter  of  to-day, 
than  that  the  teacher  is  "simply  rushed  to  death." 
Teachers  have  hidden  behind  this  as  an  excuse  for  so 
long,  that  they  have  not  only  persuaded  others  that  it 
is  true,  but  they  have  come  actually  to  believe  it  them- 
selves. As  a  matter  of  actual  fact,  teachers  have  seized 
upon  this  statement  as  an  excuse  for  evading  the 
responsibility  for  doing  any  number  of  things  that,  in 
their  hearts,  they  know  should  be  done.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  the  male  members  of  the  profession, 
who  often  find  ample  time  to  engage  in  any  number  of 
outside  activities  that  seem  to  them  to  be  more  agree- 
able, but  who  reply  vigorously  to  any  appeal  for  up- 
building of  the  school  itself,  that  they  lack  the  time. 
The  excuse  is,  with  men,  often  backed  by  a  plea  that 
their  income  is  too  low  for  them  to  maintain  a  suitable 
standard  of  living  unless  they  engage  in  these  outside 
activities.  If  they  were  but  frank  about  the  matter, 
they  would  appreciate  the  fact  that  in  most  instances 
they  are  getting  every  cent  that  they  earn,  and  many 
of  them  are  getting  more  than  they  are  entitled  to, 
judging  by  what  they  actually  accomplish. 

But  the  criticism  is  by  no  means  applicable  to  men 
alone.  The  feminine  members  of  the  profession  find 
a  splendid  excuse  for  a  round  of  pleasures  in  the  plea 
that  they  must  "enter  into  the  life  of  the  community," 
a  statement  that  is  true  enough,  but  like  everything 
else,  it  is  easily  overdone. 

The  truth  of  the  whole  matter  is,  that  if  teachers 
spend  anywhere  near  the  amount  of  time,  thought,  and 


The  Teacher  and  tlie  Survey  4!S 

energy  in  their  chosen  profession  that  a  lawyer,  or 
physician,  or  manufacturer  spends  in  his,  they  might 
then  well  object  to  added  burdens.  But  if  so  much 
time  was  spent  on  their  work,  much  that  now  has  to 
be  forced  upon  them  almost  at  the  point  of  a  knife 
would  already  have  been  accomplished ;  the  teacher's 
income  would  be  considerably  higher;  and  our  schools 
would  be  less  an  object  of  criticism.^ 

The  recognition  of  this  truth  is  particularly  essen- 
tial in  the  matter  of  the  survey.  The  movement  can 
scarcely  be  criticised  on  the  grounds  of  being  an  "edu- 
cational frill,"  nor  on  the  grounds  that  the  teacher 
lacks  sufficient  time,  for  there  is  no  reason  in  the  world 
why  the  teacher  need  do  all  of  the  work  himself.  More- 
over, the  whole  idea  is  related  in  a  most  fundamental 
way  with  the  working  efficiency  of  the  school  and  might 
well  be  done,  therefore,  even  at  a  sacrifice  of  some  other 
things.  The  surveys  ali'ead}'  undertaken  of  the  school 
plants  in  various  localities,  indicate  the  general  accept- 
ance of  this  proposition. 

It  becomes  evident,  therefore,  that  some  attention 
should  be  devoted  to  the  matter  of  method.  It  has 
already  been  suggested  that  few  teachers  have  the 
time  or  the  means  at  their  disposal  for  a  complete  sur- 
vey, if  they  undertake  the  task  alone.  But  there  is 
no  reason  why  this  should  be  done.  There  are  many 
agencies  at  hand,  and  more  that  can  be  developed,  with 
which  the  teacher  may  cooperate.  Even  the  first 
stages  of  the  planning  of  the  survey  and  the  drafting  of 
the  blanks  upon  which  the  data  is  to  be  collected,  need 
not  be  wholly  original  work,  as  there  are  a  number  of 

^  It  may  be  urged  that  cause  and  effect  have  been  inverted  in 
the  matter  of  teachers'  incomes.  If  we  are  to  judge  by  experience 
in  other  lines  of  human  endeavor,  however,  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
teachers'  wages  will  be  increased  when  they  prove  that  they  are 
earning  more,  and  not  until  then. 


44)         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

sources  from  which  assistance  may  be  obtained. 

Thus,  the  Ohio  Rural  Life  Survey  has  covered  a 
large  number  of  counties  in  that  State,  and  though 
particular  attention  was  devoted  to  the  church  prob- 
lem, social  and  economic  conditions  were  by  no  means 
neglected.  The  Department  of  Surveys  and  Exhibits 
of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  is  always  willing  to 
lend  a  helping  hand  in  matters  of  this  kind.  The 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  has  itself  published 
a  bulletin  that  contains  a  suggestive  list  of  questions 
that  might  well  be  investigated,^  including  questions  of 
population,  economic  conditions,  social  conditions,  and 
educational  and  religious  conditions.  Two  of  the  more 
recent  works  on  rural  sociology  contain  an  admirable 
chapter  on  the  rural  survey,  including  a  suggestive  list 
of  questions  to  be  covered.*  The  American  Unitarian 
Association,  through  its  Department  of  Social  and  Pub- 
lic Service  has  issued  a  bulletin  of  considerable  value 
entitled  "Knowing  One's  Own  Community."  This  may 
be  had  for  the  asking.  The  College  of  Agriculture  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin  has  issued  a  number  of 
extremely  helpful  bulletins  which  treat  of  the  rural 
survey  and  the  wider  use  of  the  school  plant.  Surely 
no  one  need  complain  of  lack  of  suggestive  material.^ 

The  second  step  in  the  making  of  a  survey,  once  the 
schedules  have  been  put  into  satisfactory  shape,  is  to 
get  a  corps  of  assistants  to  do  the  field  work.  This 
may  be  done  in  one  of  two  ways,  or,  if  the  situation  be 

*  Training  Courses  for  Rural  Teachers,  p.  9,  Bulletin  No,  2,  1913. 

*  Gillette,  Rural  Sociology,  Ch.  18,  and  Voght,  Introduction  to 
Rural  Sociology. 

"  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  suggest  here  a  detailed 
schedule  to  follow.  Several  of  the  above  mentioned  references 
contain  such  schedules,  and  often  sample  blanks  can  be  secured 
from  agencies  that  have  made  a  survey.  Each  community  must, 
moreover,  adjust  the  schedules  to  meet  its  own  needs. 


The  Teacher  and  the  Survey  45 

such  that  it  is  possible,  a  combination  of  these  two 
ways  may  be  utiHzed. 

The  teacher,  who  is  presumed  to  be  the  general  head 
and  director  of  the  work,  may  choose  a  staff  of  five 
or  ten  careful  persons,  well  known  in  the  community, 
representative  of  the  various  interests,  who  can  be  re- 
lied upon  to  exercise  judgment  and  discretion  in  their 
work.  A  good  method  of  procedure  is  to  make  a  list  of 
all  those  in  any  way  available,  and  then,  with  the 
above  qualifications  in  mind,  check  over  the  list,  elimi- 
nating those  people  that,  for  auy  reason,  are  not  alto- 
gether suited  to  the  particular  work  in  hand.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  no  section  is  without  a  represen- 
tative, if  it  can  be  avoided  in  any  way.  It  is  well  that 
all  classes,  young  and  old,  as  well  as  every  economic 
interest  (such  as  agricultural,  mercantile,  professional, 
etc.)  should  be  represented.  Local  prejudices  and 
sectional  jealousies  can  best  be  eliminated  by  so  doing. 
There  is  also  the  added  advantage  of  avoiding  one- 
sided conclusions.  The  staff  thus  tentatively  chosen 
may  then  be  called  together  and  the  matter  laid  before 
them.  The  object  desired  should  be  explained,  other 
surveys  discussed,  and  the  methods  of  attacking  the 
present  problem  talked  over.  It  is  also  well  to  raise 
the  matter  of  including  others,  not  present,  in  the 
staff.  Absolute  frankness  is  quite  essential,  and  it  is 
quite  probable  that  many  compromises  will  have  to  be 
effected. 

The  second  method  of  getting  the  field  work  done  is 
perhaps  more  satisfactory,  at  least  in  certain  respects. 
In  almost  every  locality  there  are  a  number  of  existing 
organizations  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  sometimes 
the  number  may  be  as  high  as  a  dozen  or  even  more. 
Where  this  is  the  case,  it  may  be  well  to  put  the  work 
into  the  hands  of  an  organization.     By  so  doing,  an 


46  The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

existing  piece  of  machinery  is  utilized,  and  a  further 
advantage  accrues  from  the  facts  that  greater  vitality 
in  the  organization  comes  from  having  a  definite  work 
to  do ;  a  thing  ofttimes  of  greatest  good  in  itself. 
Where  this  plan  is  followed,  it  is  well  to  talk  the  mat- 
ter over  with  prominent  individual  members  of  the 
organization  first,  and,  after  they  have  secured  the 
promise  of  assistance  from  their  organization,  the 
teacher  can  appear  before  them  in  person,  if  he  chance 
not  to  be  a  member,  and  proceed  as  already  suggested. 
It  is  quite  essential  that,  within  the  organization  itself, 
responsibility  be  centered  through  some  individual,  in 
a  committee.  The  question  of  which  organization,  if 
there  be  more  than  one,  is  chosen,  must  be  most  care- 
fully considered  by  the  director,  as  a  poor  selection  may 
easily  wreck  the  whole  procedure.  For  reasons  already 
suggested,  it  is  usually  well,  other  things  being  equal, 
to  select  some  religious  club  or  organization. 

The  last-named  difficulty — that  of  choosing  which, 
organization  shall  be  entrusted  with  the  work — may  be 
avoided  by  a  combination  of  the  two  methods  already 
suggested.  If  there  be  several  agencies  available,  it  is 
often  advisable  to  give  a  portion  of  the  work  to  each 
of  them,  thus  avoiding  jealousies,  insuring  representa- 
tion of  most  (if  not  all)  the  leading  interests  in  the 
community,  and  popularizing  the  work,  while  at  the 
same  time  "half-dead"  organizations  are  revived  by 
having  a  real  work  to  do.  Where  this  policy  is  fol- 
lowed, it  is  well  to  have  each  group  choose  a  single 
representative  (as  must  of  course  be  done  in  any  case 
if  efficient  work  is  to  be  done)  and  then  organize  these 
various  representatives  into  a  single  Executive  Com- 
mittee, of  which  the  teacher  should  be  the  chairman. 

This  Executive  Committee  should  convene  frequently,, 
and  go  over  every  detail  of  the  work  and  undejcstaud 


The  Teacher  and  tlie  Survey  47 

perfectly  each  detail  on  the  schedules  before  actual 
field  work  is  undertaken.  In  the  division  of  the  field 
among  the  various  organizations,  it  is  well  that,  wher- 
ever possible,  no  organization  should  examine  its  own 
particular  section  of  the  field ;  for  although  there  is 
the  possibility  of  prejudice  where  one  organization  sur- 
veys another,  this  danger  can  be  avoided  with  far 
greater  ease  than  the  opposite  one  of  unduly  favor- 
able returns  as  a  result  of  too  close  acquaintanceship 
with  one  particular  function. 

The  machinery  having  been  selected,  the  next  step  is 
to  collect  the  data.^  If  possible,  a  printed  or  type- 
written copy  of  instructions  to  all  collectors  of  data 
should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  those  engaged  in  the 
work.  In  any  event,  it  is  well  to  make  a  number  of 
suggestions  to  these  people.  The  following  list  is 
fairly  representative  of  the  nature  of  these  suggestions. 
The  hints  given  come  from  actual  experience  in  the 
work,  and  may  therefore  be  of  some  value. 

Keep  all  blanks  in  a  notebook;  separate  (as  with  a 

*The  problem  of  just  what  constitutes  the  "Community"  is 
somewhat  simplified  where  the  ultimate  object  is  educational  ad- 
justment, since  in  this  case  the  unit  is  the  school  district  to  which 
the  teacher  is  responsible.  In  cases  where  the  survey  is  not 
primarily  undertaken  by  the  school  yet  presumably  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  school  the  best  plan,  perhaps,  of  defining  the  com- 
munity boundary  is  that  suggested  by  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, College  of  Agriculture,  "Begin  at  the  village  center  and 
go  west  into  the  open  country.  The  first  farmhouse  goes  to  this 
village  for  trade,  doctor,  high  school,  church,  etc.  It  therefore 
belongs  to  this  community.  So  the  second  home  west,  the  third, 
the  fourth,  etc.  Finally,  you  come  to  a  home  that  turns  the  other 
way  to  another  village  for  its  principal  needs.  This  home  does 
not  belong  to  your  community.  Connect  with  a  line  all  the  most 
distant  homes  in  each  direction,  that  you  find  turning  to  the 
activities  in  your  village  center.  This  line  will  be  the  boundary 
of  your  community."  See  University  of  Wisconsin,  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Circular  of  Information  No.  20 — "A  ^lethod 
of  Making  a  Social  Survey"  by  C.  J.  Galpin. 


48         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

rubber  band)  those  filled  out  from  those  still  to  be  filled 
out,  as  well  as  keeping  various  sets  of  blanks  separate. 

Do  not  confine  your  notes  to  the  blank  questions. 
Remember  that  no  set  of  blanks  can  anticipate  all  infor- 
mation ;  hence  do  not  neglect  facts  simply  because  there 
is  no  specific  space  for  them.  These  sidelights  are 
often  the  most  valuable  bits  of  information  that  it  is 
possible  to  get,  and  throw  an  infinite  amount  of  light 
upon  the  explanation  of  the  other  data. 

At  every  possible  point,  check  up  the  facts  that  have 
been  given  you.  Thus,  the  condition  of  the  church 
should  not  be  accepted  from  information  from  the 
pastor  alone,  but  should  be  confirmed  from  disinterested 
sources. 

Do  not  categorically  quizz  in  an  effort  to  secure 
information  if  any  other  method  can  be  used.  By  so 
doing  you  are  apt  to  arouse  antagonism  and  at  the 
same  time  you  automatically  exclude  the  possibility  of 
securing  side-lights  upon  the  situation. 

Take  plent}-  of  time.  You  can  never  tell  how  much 
you  may  miss  by  hurrying  your  informer. 

Take  photographs  of  very  good  or  very  poor  condi- 
tions. These  confirm  the  data,  give  a  measure  for 
future  improvement,  and  increase  the  interest. 

Do  not  hand  in  a  card  or  answer  a  question  without 
reading  it  twice. 

In  returning  cards,  do  not  fold  them — hand  them 
in  flat.  It  adds  to  the  ease  of  dealing  with  them  when 
it  comes  to  filing. 

Be  sure  to  sign  your  name  to  every  card  you  hand 
in.  In  no  other  way  can  data  be  checked  up  if  called 
into  question. 

Do  not  ask  any  one  for  information  necessary  to 
fill  out  the  cards  if  you  can  possibly  obtain  it  by  per- 
sonal investigation. 


The  Teacher  and  the  Survey  49 

Take  mental  notes  of  things  where  written  answers 
might  arouse  opposition  and  would  be  observed  at  the 
time.  Many  people  "close  up  like  clams"  if  they  think 
they  are  telling  you  something  which  might  be  used. 
But  make  written  memorandum  at  the  earliest  available 
moment. 

Obtain  exact  information  wherever  possible.  Do  not 
be  satisfied  with  "estimates"  if  there  are  any  records 
available.  (Thus,  in  getting  the  church  membership, 
go  to  the  church  rolls,  and  do  not  rely  upon  the  in- 
former's estimates,  no  matter  how  well  informed  he  may 
appear  to  be.) 

Take  your  notes  with  a  fountain  pen,  and  write 
legibly.  Remember  that  jou  are  not  the  onl}^  one  who 
may  want  to  read  what  you  have  written. 

It  is  well,  if  possible,  to  get  written  copies  of  consti- 
tutions and  the  like,  of  any  organizations  with  which 
you  are  dealing,  whether  that  organization  be  economic, 
social,  or  religious.  Do  not  neglect  this  simply  because 
you  "know  where  it  can  be  found,"  or  because 
"everybody  knows  about  it."  It  may  not  be  available 
at  the  very  time  that  it  is  wanted  most,  and  many  a 
constitution  contains  clauses  that  even  the  members  of 
the  organization  know  nothing  about. 

There  is  one  other  thing  which  it  may  be  well  to 
mention,  since  it  is  so  frequently  overlooked.  No  end 
of  information  can  be  gotten  from  county  records,  from 
records  of  Justices  of  the  Peace,  from  the  Census 
returns,  and  from  governmental  agencies  of  other 
kinds.  Scarcely  any  other  source  of  accurate  informa- 
tion, for  instance,  is  available  on  matters  of  soil  com- 
position, rain-fall,  and  the  like.  Other  information, 
of  course,  can  be  obtained  from  local  persons,  such  as 
the  pastors,  leading  farmers,  Sunday  School  teachers. 


50         The  Rural  Scliool  and  the  Community 

assessors,  presidents  and  secretaries  of  local  organiza- 
tions, etc.  It  is  also  well  to  get  the  opinions  of  numer- 
ous people  who  are  not  especially  prominent,  since 
these  forai  the  bulk  of  the  population  and  their  judg- 
ment is  the  ultimate  determinant  of  success  or  failure. 

The  data  having  been  collected,  the  next  problem  is 
what  shall  be  done  with  it.  For  when  the  work  in  the 
field  has  been  done,  the  blanks  filled  out,  and  the  ques- 
tions answered,  it  is  certainly  no  time  to  sit  down  and 
say  to  ourselves,  "What  a  fine  piece  of  work  we  have 
done,"  even  though  the  survey  is  more  complete  than 
the  usual  educational  survey.  For  though  the  means 
have  now  been  secured,  the  end  still  remains  to  be 
accomplished.  At  least  three  things  remain  to  be  done : 
(1)  the  tabulation  of  the  data,  (2)  its  presentation,  in 
understandable  form,  with  an  analysis  thereof,  to  the 
community  to  which  it  really  belongs ;  and  the  secur- 
ing of  a  discussion  of  the  results  by  the  community ; 
(3)  the  formulation  of  a  constructive  program,  with 
a  view  both  toward  keeping  the  data  up-to-date,  and 
toward  remedying  the  community's  weak  spots.  From 
our  present  point  of  view,  of  course,  this  applies  par- 
ticularly to  the  school  system. 

The  tabulation  of  the  data  is  the  least  difficult  of 
these  tasks,  and  yet  even  here  there  are  several  con- 
siderations to  be  borne  in  mind.  It  would  be  well  to 
file  the  original  cards  with  the  data  just  as  it  is,  fresh 
from  the  field.  This  makes  it  possible  to  have  always 
on  hand  the  material  from  which  to  pass  upon  new 
difficulties  as  they  arise,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep 
the  facts  strictly  up-to-date.  The  material  should  also 
be  compiled  in  the  form  of  summary  charts.  A  third 
device  is  also  most  helpful,  namely,  the  making  of 
charts.  Here,  again,  there  is  room  for  the  exercise 
of  ingenuity.     A  general,  or  community,  map,  drawn 


The  Teacher  and  tJie  Survey  51 

on  white  card-board  or  cloth-backed  paper — perhaps 
36  by  40  inches — and  indicating  all  the  roads ;  the 
village  limits ;  the  location  and  occupiers  of  the  out- 
Wing  farms ;  whether  farms  are  owned  or  rented ;  and 
the  location  of  creameries,  churches,  and  the  like.  A 
village  map  of  similar  size  should  accompany  this. 
Galpin,  in  the  Bulletin  No.  20  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  College  of  Agriculture,  mentioned  above, 
suggests  that  these  same  maps  may  be  converted  into 
a  "socialization  map"  b}^  assigning  to  each  organiza- 
tion (found  by  means  of  the  survey)  a  separate  color, 
and  then  attaching  to  each  farm  home  shown  on  the 
maps,  seals  of  the  color  representative  of  the  organiza- 
tions of  which  members  are  to  be  found  in  that  home. 
In  addition  to  these  general  maps  any  number  of  spe- 
cial maps  may  be  added,  as  a  church  map,  similar  to 
those  of  the  Ohio  Rural  Life  Survey  ;'^  a  population 
map,  indicating  the  nativity,  sex,  and  age  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  almost  any  number  of  others. 

The  second  part  of  the  task  is  to  present  this  data 
to  the  community  in  understandable  form,  with  an 
analysis  of  it.  Great  effort  will  usually  not  be  required 
to  get  the  people  together  to  talk  over  this  data,  for  by 
the  time  the  work  has  reached  this  stage  every  one  in 
the  community  will  know  about  it  and  be  keenly  inquisi- 
tive about  the  results.  Merely  a  notice,  therefore,  call- 
ing attention  to  the  fact  that  a  general  meeting  is  to 
be  held  for  this  purpose,  will  be  quite  sufficient.  Two 
things  must  be  accomplished  at  this  meeting.  In  the 
first  place,  the  facts  must  be  presented,  uncolorcd  by 
personal  feelings,  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  situation 
is  made  perfectly  clear.  Charts,  diagrams,  and  maps 
should  be  relied  upon.     It  is  well  to  have  this  material 

'  See,   for  instance,  those   in  the  bulletin  Church  Growth   and 
Decay  in  Ohio,  pp.  18-19, 


62  The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

on  exhibition  and  open  to  examination  before  the  meet- 
ing is  called  to  order.  Those  present  can  then  partially 
familiarize  themselves  with  it  before  the  discussion  be- 
gins. Figures  are  always  tiresome  to  the  average  audi- 
ence, and  care  should  be  taken  that  too  many  statistics 
are  not  given.  On  the  other  hand,  no  doubt  should  be 
left  in  the  minds  of  the  people  as  to  the  actual  existence 
of  adequate  data  as  a  basis  for  the  charts.^ 

The  second  object  to  be  attained  at  this  town  meet- 
ing is  to  lay  the  foundation  for  permanent  constructive 
work.  Cooperation  should  be  the  key-note  to  the 
whole  meeting.  It  should  be  made  clear  that  the  only 
purpose  in  showing  weaknesses  is  that  they  may  be 
remedied.  With  the  data  thus  in  hand,  with  a  spirit  of 
cooperation  developed,  and  a  constructive  program 
outlined,  the  community  may  well  look  toward  a  higher 
plane  of  educational  effort, — an  awakened  public  spirit 
on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  way  cleared 
for  a  school  that  fits  into  its  own  locality;  and  by  ad- 
justment, meets  its  particular  demands.  For  now,  and 
not  until  now,  is  the  teacher  ready  to  say  to  those  who 
support  the  school,  "We  are  in  a  position  to  serve  you." 

The  signs  of  the  times  are  good.  Earnest  minded 
men  and  women  in  the  teaching  profession  are  trying  to 
further  efficiency  scientifically.  There  are  a  number  of 
illustrations  to  which  attention  might  be  called ;  one — 
that  of  the  Georgia  Club  of  the  State  Normal  School  at 
Athens,  Georgia — is  given  below.  This  is  perhaps  the 
most  notable  example. 

"For  two  years  the  club  has  been  studying  the  various 

*  Upon  the  construction  of  these  charts,  two  sources  of  informa- 
tion, among  a  large  number  of  others,  might  be  indicated.  The 
publications  of  the  Ohio  Rural  Life  Survey  are  full  of  excellent 
suggestions,  and  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  issues  a  pamphlet 
on  the  construction  of  Exliibits. 


The  Teacher  and  the  Survey  53 

phases  and  problems  of  population,  agriculture,  manu- 
facturing, wealth  and  taxation,  farm  ownership  and 
tenancy,  public  roads,  public  sanitation,  cooperative 
farm  enterprise,  schools  and  churches  in  Georgia.  The 
state  has  been  passing  under  searching  review  as  a 
whole,  and  in  detail  county  by  county.  Every  step  of 
the  way  Georgia  is  compared  with  the  other  States  of 
the  Union  and  ranked  accordingly.  But  also  her  gains 
and  losses,  between  1900  and  1910,  are  exhibited  in  a 
10-year  balance  sheet. 

Meanwhile  the  various  student  groups  have  been 
working  out  similar  balance  sheets  for  their  home  coun- 
ties, each  county  being  ranked  among  the  counties  of 
the  State  in  all  the  particulars  covered  in  the  club 
studies.  These  bare  facts  are  then  translated  into 
simple  running  narratives  for  easy  reading  by  the  way- 
faring man  back  in  the  home  counties.  Thirty-six 
such  county  surveys  have  thus  far  been  given  to  the 
public.  They  embody  facts  and  well-considered  con- 
clusions. The  club  believes  that  facts  without  opinions 
are  useless,  and  that  opinions  without  facts  are  imper- 
tinent and  mischievous. 

And  so  the  club  is  ransacking  the  census  returns, 
the  reports  of  the  State  house  officials,  the  county  tax 
digests,  and  grand  jury  presentments,  the  minutes  of 
the  church  associations,  the  section  on  Georgia  in  the 
school  hbrary,  and  every  other  available  source  of  au- 
thoritative information. 

Most  of  the  students  are  country  bred  and  usually 
know  their  home  counties  thoroughly;  but  when  they 
study  the  drift  of  affairs  and  events  during  a  10-year 
interval,  and  check  the  coatrasts,  they  are  brought  face 
to  face  with  causes,  conditions,  and  consequences  within 
small,  definite,  well-known  areas. 

The  discoveries  challenge  interest  and  concern  like 


64  The  Rural  School  and  the  Commwnity 

a  bugle  blast.  A  sense  of  civic  and  social  responsibil- 
ity stirs  in  them.  They  hear  the  call  to  service  in 
the  country-side,  to  service  within  the  walls  of  their 
schoolrooms  and  far  beyond  it.  All  of  these  young 
people  will  be  teachers,  but  few  of  them  will  be  teachers 
merely,  they  will  be  leaders  as  well,  in  all  worthy  com- 
munity enterprises." 

Having  caried  the  work  thus  far,  there  are  clearly 
two  phases  of  the  task  still  before  us — one  dealing 
with  the  curriculum  itself,  and  the  other  dealing  with 
the  relation  between  the  school  and  the  adult.  Each  of 
these  calls  for  separate  attention.  But  before  taking 
up  these,  a  word  regarding  the  teacher  himself  will 
be  in  order. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    TEACHER    AND    THE    CURRICULUM 

^  I  ^  HE  second  of  the  original  propositions  calls  for 
^  an  adapted  curriculum.  We  must  not,  at  any 
time,  forget  a  thing  that  is  made  much  of  in  our  city 
schools  but  which  is  equally  applicable  to  rural  com- 
munities, and  that  is  that  the  vast  majority  of  people, 
at  the  present  time,  never  get  beyond  the  high  school. 
The  agricultural  college  will  do  much,  but  most  young 
farmers  will  never  get  that  far.  In  fact,  this  lack  of 
education  is  peculiarly  true  of  the  country;  for  while 
the  percentage  of  those  who  drop  out  is  probably  no 
larger  than  it  is  in  the  city,  yet  the  terms  in  country 
schools  are  apt  to  be  shorter,  and  having  dropped  out 
one  finds  that  there  is  little  equivalent  for  the  continua- 
tion school  or  the  apprenticeship  so  often  open  to  city 
youth.  Extension  courses  and  correspondence  courses 
are  open  to  the  country  youth,  it  is  true,  but  these  can 
never  quite  fill  the  place  of  the  opportunities  of  the 
urban  dweller.    What  then,  is  to  be  done? 

When  the  teacher,  trained  as  has  been  suggested, 
comes  to  the  open  country,  he  finds  confronting  him 
two  tasks ;  one  that  of  the  adaptation  of  the  curriculum, 
and  the  other  the  socializing  of  the  school.  The  former 
is  the  more  immediate.  It  should  be  noted  at  this  point 
that,  the  subjects  required  may  be  roughly  grouped  into 
two  classes — those  which  may,  in  a  large  measure,  be 
taught  much  the  same  in  any  community  and  those  in 
which  the  greatest  value  is  to  be  secured  through  special 

55 


56         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commumti/ 

adjustment  to  local  conditions.  Thus,  spelling,  gram- 
mar, arithmetic,  penmanship,  and  to  a  degree  history, 
must  be  taught  upon  the  basis  of  the  involved  principles, 
and  the  method  must  largely  be  the  same  whether  the 
school  is  located  in  a  mining,  a  grazing,  or  a  lumbering 
community.  With  these  we  need  not  particularly  con- 
cern ourselves  now. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  those  branches,  such  as 
agriculture  and  government,  that  ought  to  be  adapted ; 
and  they  can  only  be  made  to  mean  the  most  through 
such  adjustment.  Not  but  what  there  are  certain  fun- 
damental principles  that  must  be  established  wherever 
these  studies  are  offered,  but  the  greatest  good  comes 
through  a  particular  application  of  them  to  the  locality 
involved.  V  Moreover,  while  the  basic  principles  may  be 
the  same,  their  effective  presentation  is  dependent  upon 
a  thorough  acquaintance  with  local  conditions,  pre- 
judices, and  temperament. y/The  primary  thing  to  note 
is  that  the  demand  is  not  for  the  offering  of  new 
courses  nor  the  dropping  of  certain  others.  The  diffi- 
culty is  rather  a  matter  of  emphasis  and  adaptation. 

To  be  concrete,  let  us  illustrate  the  point  by  a  brief 
consideration  of  two  communities.  Roughly  speaking, 
agricultural  communities  may  be  classed  as  (a)  stock 
raising,  (b)  fruit  raising,  (c)  dairying,  (d)  general 
farming,  (e)  market  gardening,  and  (f)  communities 
where  particular  crops  are  raised,  such  as  corn,  grain, 
cotton  or  tobacco  sections.  Further  classifications 
may  be  made  along  other  considerations,  but  these  are 
the  most  obvious. 

Suppose,  then,  for  the  purpose  of  illustration,  that 
we  have  two  communities — A  and  B.  Having  under- 
taken a  social  survey  and  analyzed  the  localities,  let 
us  suppose  further  that,  in  regard  to  A,  the  following 
facts  are  revealed:  it  is  a  fruit  growing  community; 


The  Teacher  and  the  Curriculum,  57 

most  of  the  farmers  are  of  native  white  stock ;  they 
are  conservative  by  temperament ;  they  borrow  little 
money;  their  average  income  is  above  that  of  farmers 
in  general;  they  own  their  own  farms.  In  the  commun- 
ity of  B,  the  number  of  renters  is  very  high — due  to 
the  cost  of  land ;  the  population  is  of  foreign  extrac- 
tion; the  farmers  secure  a  meager  income  from  mixed 
farming.  There  is  no  grange,  no  lodges  of  any  kind  of 
significance,  and  there  is  no  effort  toward  cooperation. 
These  facts  can.be  established  to  a  certainty  only  by 
investigation — surface  impressions  are  extremely  apt  to 
be  erroneous  and  colored  by  the  comparatively  few 
persons  with  whom  the  investigator  comes  in  contact. 
Moreover,  even  though  the  impressions  be  correct,  the 
extent  to  wliich  these  conditions  exist  can  only  be 
determined  by  careful  analysis  and  study. 

It  might  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  the  writer 
has  in  mind  actual  communities,  in  this  analysis.  They 
are  essentially  different  in  make-up,  but  are  purposely 
so  chosen  for  the  sake  of  making  the  point  perfectly 
clear. 

Now,  in  both  of  these  communities — A  and  B — the 
state  law  requires  the  same  course  of  study — from 
which  are  chosen,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  con- 
trast— the  teaching  of  agriculture,  of  government,  and 
of  literature.  These  illustrate  both  the  newer  and 
the  older  tendencies  in  curriculum-making,  and  while 
it  is  obviously  out  of  the  question  to  outline  courses 
in  each  of  these  branches,  certain  differences  in  pre- 
sentation and  emphasis  may  be  indicated  by  way  of 
comparison. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  teaching  of  agriculture.  In 
a  recent  bulletin  of  the  bureau  of  Education^  it 
is  pointed  out  that  Warren's  "Elements  of  Agri- 
*  Agricultural  Instruction  in  High  Schools. 


58         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commimity 

culture"  is  used  in  twice  as  many  schools  as  is  any 
other  text;  it  is  followed  in  importance  by  GofF  and 
Mayne  "First  Principles  of  Agriculture,"  Assuming, 
for  purposes  of  illustration,  that  the  teacher  does  use 
one  of  these  texts,  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  how 
many  simply  teach  them  through.  More  and  more  are 
teachers  coming  to  supplement  agricultural  texts  with 
experimental  work,  and  occasionally  with  government 
bulletins.  But  the  point  to  which  it  is  intended  to  call 
attention  is  that  the  only  variation  in  emphasis  which 
the  various  divisions  of  the  field  get  are  those  already 
indicated  by  the  text,  and  the  supplemental  work  is 
not  for  the  sake  of  varying  the  emphasis.  There  are 
two  reasons  why  this  is  done,  one  being  that  the  teacher 
assumes  that  the  children  will  get  at  home  the  applica- 
tion to  local  conditions ;  the  other  being  that  he  feels 
something  of  a  lack  of  adequate  preparation,  and  is 
afraid  of  making  a  mistake. 

So  far  as  the  first  reason  is  concerned,  it  is  simply  a 
fact  that  children  do  not  learn  the  principles  at  home. 
Probably  most  farmers  do  what  they  do,  without  know- 
ing why,  simply  because  it  brings  some  kind  of  results; 
and  hence  the  child  docs  not  see  the  principle  in  appli- 
cation in  such  form  that  it  is  recognized.  Not  infre- 
quently, too,  the  method  pursued  by  the  farmer  is  not 
the  best  by  any  manner  of  means.  To  cite  a  parallel 
illustration :  the  girl  may  learn  something  about  house- 
hold management  at  home,  but  the  facts  are  without 
explanation ;  the  process  often  cumbersome  or  awk- 
ward; and  the  results,  judged  from  any  point  of  view, 
are  indifferent  in  quality.  In  any  case,  trained  super- 
vision and  direction  are  essential  to  the  securing  of 
the  best  results. 

So  far  as  the  second  reason  is  concerned — the  fear 
of  making  a  mistake — it  may  be  suggested  that  an  ade- 


The  Teacher  and  the  Curriculum  59 

quate  training  for  rural  teaching  miglit  go  a  long 
way  toward  establishing  confidence  in  his  own  ability, 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Not  that  he  need  be  a 
technically  trained  farmer,  but  he  should  be  sure  of  him- 
self so  far  as  he  goes,  and  not  be  placed  in  a  position 
where  lack  of  preparation  causes  lack  of  efficiency. 

So  the  fact  remains,  that  in  the  two  communities  we 
have  under  consideration,  or  any  other  community  for 
that  matter,  a  policy  of  equal  emphasis  can  but  result 
in  a  loss  of  efficiency.  Either  by  bulletins,  or  lecture 
work,  or  experimental  and  laboratory  work,  the  teacher 
in  community  A  should  by  all  means  emphasize  the 
things  which  tlie  farmers  in  that  locality  need  to  know 
in  a  scientific  way, — such  as  the  culture  of  small  fruits, 
spraying  and  tree  pests,  tree  diseases,  tree  care,  frost 
prevention,  packing  for  market,  advertising,  and  sub- 
sidiary crops.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to 
showing  the  value  of  cooperative  enterprises,  and  the 
value  of  expert  advice,  for  experience  shows  that  it  is 
in  just  such  localities  as  this  that  the  self-complacent 
native  white  scorns  aid  or  advice.  These  are  the  things, 
on  the  other  hand,  which  the  teacher  in  B  may  safely 
pass  over  with  less  attention.  He  has  need  to  empha- 
size rotation,  seed  selection,  weeds,  buildings,  stock 
judging,  feeds  and  feeding,  diseases  of  cattle,  good 
roads,  and,  the  community  being  a  renting  one,  the 
need  of  conservation.  Not  but  what  all  of  these  things 
need  to  be  taught  in  both  localities,  but  the  emphasis 
needs  to  be  placed  where  the  local  need  demands.  The 
social  survey  will,  moreover,  indicate  certain  particu- 
lar weaknesses  in  this  special  fruit  growing  community 
— peculiarities  that  would  probably  come  to  one's 
notice  in  no  other  way.  These  need  to  be  given  atten- 
tion and  not  passed  over  for  fear  of  local  criticism. 
Tact  must  be  used,  but  the  facts  must  be  told. 


60         The  Rural  School  and  tlie  Commwnity 

So,  too,  in  the  case  of  literature.  Here  there  is,  at 
the  present  time,  less  leeway  for  the  teacher,  since  he  is 
expected  to  cover  the  readings  required  for  college 
entrance.  The  difficulty  here  arises  primarily  from 
the  fact  that  in  the  committee  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  little  weight  indeed  is  given  to  the 
opinion  of  the  rural  constituency  of  that  committee. 
The  charge  that  the  colleges  have  dictated  the  require- 
ments is  of  course  not  new,  and  in  part  a  concession 
has  been  forced  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  eighty-three 
per  cent  of  high  school  students  who  do  not  go  to  col- 
lege. But  the  concessions  have  been  made  for  the 
benefit  of  the  technical  and  manual-training  schools ; 
and  while  they  are  being  accommodated  in  part,  the 
rural  student  is  as  bad  off  as  ever.  The  percentage 
of  rural  students  who  go  either  to  the  city  technical 
school  or  to  colleges  of  liberal  arts  is  as  small,  in  all 
probability,  as  the  percentage  of  urban  high  school 
students  who  go  to  college.  Yet  no  adjustment  has 
been  made  for  the  benefit  of  this  large  percentage  of 
rural  students.  It  would  seem  as  though  consideration 
should  be  given  to  this  fact.  It  is  beyond  all  question 
possible  to  acquaint  the  rural  student  with  the  choicest 
bits  of  the  world's  literature  and  yet,  at  the  same  time, 
place  the  emphasis  upon  authors  who  treat  of  rural 
topics.  Usually  we  pass  these  things  by  with  a  refer- 
ence to  the  beautiful  figures  of  speech  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  scene  is  laid  "in  a  simple  country  village."  But 
it  is  difficult  to  see  why  in  place  of  those  writers  who 
always  give  the  urban  point  of  view,  we  might  not  intro- 
duce more  Whittier,  and  Longfellow,  and  perhaps  Isaac 
Walton,    Gray's    Letters,    and    Thomson's    "Seasons." 

These  things,  however,  have  been  emphasized  before, 
and  they  need  not  be  repeated  again,  except  to  say  that 
to  gain  even  this  vantage  ground  is  not  sufficient.     So 


The  Teacher  and  the  Curriculum  61 

far  as  these  particular  communities  are  concerned  is  it 
not  the  part  of  wisdom  to  emphasize,  in  community  A, 
such  writings  as  will  stir  them  out  of  their  lethargy  and 
make  them  question  and  think.  In  this  connection 
Thoreau's  "Walden",  some  of  Burrows,  and  perhaps 
even  parts  of  Rousseau  may  not  be  out  of  place.  There 
are,  too,  many  more  recent  writings  that  will  serve  the 
same  purpose  though  they  have  not  as  yet  taken  their 
places  among  the  world's  greatest  pieces  of  literature, 
and  possibly  never  will.  In  B,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
quieting,  more  satisfied  tone  is  called  for, — "The  Vicar 
of  Wakefield"  and  Whittier's  "Snowbound,"  and  Long- 
fellow will  not  be  amiss. 

The  same  principle  holds  true  in  the  teaching  of 
government.  Here  the  obvious  function,  in  the  case  of 
A,  is  to  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  political  heri- 
tage of  the  people,  an  appreciation  of  the  influence 
of  the  native  born  English-speaking  persons ;  and  more 
may  be  taken  for  granted  as  to  the  machinery  of  gov- 
ernment and  the  meaning  of  terms.  In  B,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  function  must  be  to  develop  a  conception  of 
an  American's  rights  and  duties,  of  the  proper  sphere 
of  governmental  activities  (if  there  be  any  leaning 
toward  socialism).  To  be  somewhat  more  specific — in 
A  the  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  influence 
of  popular  rule ;  of  special  problems  rising  from  the 
shifting  of  population ;  questions  of  foreign  policy  may 
be  considered;  and  the  organization  of  the  various 
governmental  agencies  may  be  treated  in  greater  detail. 
In.  B  the  topics  that  require  special  study  are  the 
place  of  political  parties  and  terminology;  the  im- 
mediate duties  of  citizenship ;  the  ethics  of  the  fran- 
chise; and  the  simpler  facts  bearing  on  the  legal  rela- 
tion of  owner  and  tenant;  as  well  as  the  obligations  of 
debtors ;  the  place  of  the  savings  bank,  and  the  like. 


62         The  Rural  School  and  tlie  CommimitT/ 

One  may  be  pardoned  for  a  seeming  digression  in  this 
connection;  but  the  subject  is  so  seldom  given  due  con- 
sideration in  spite  of  its  vital  importance  that  par- 
ticular attention  may  well  be  called  to  it.  Other  phases 
of  education  have  been  duly  emphasized,  but  so  far  as 
acquainting  a  student  with  the  real  nature  of  the  politi- 
cal institutions  that  we  expect  him  to  support,  or 
insisting  upon  the  importance  of  keeping  abreast  of 
current  events,  or  suggesting  the  nature  of  the  great 
social  questions  with  which  the  State  itself  is  being 
forced  to  cope  more  and  more,  our  secondary  schools 
do  little  indeed.  Few  of  our  high  school  graduates 
have  any  but  the  haziest  of  notions,  and  these  full  of 
error,  regarding  the  political  world  about  them;  while 
their  ideas  of  the  economic  institutions  of  society  are 
scanty  and  warped  out  of  all  proportion  through  lack 
of  proper  prospective,  and  still  fewer  graduates  have 
any  conception  of  the  larger  social  problems  of  the 
day. 

The  theory  of  the  case  is  clear.  One  has  but  to  give 
the  situation  a  moment's  thought  to  recognize  the  in- 
creasing importance  of  such  training.  Every  month  it 
is  suggested  that  we  transfer  to  the  state  some  function 
hitherto  left  to  private  initiative.  The  government  is 
constantly  asked  to  regulate  and  supervise  new  fields 
of  enterprise.  Monopoly  and  competition  alike  are  con- 
trolled by  government  commissions.  It  is  neither  to 
condemn  nor  defend  this  tendency  that  attention  is 
called  to  it,  but  solely  to  urge  that  adequate  perform- 
ance of  these  functions  implies  previous  training  and 
thought. 

The  significance  of  the  whole  matter  becomes  more 
apparent  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  settlement  of 
many  of  these  questions  is  being  forced  directly  back 
upon  the  people.     Direct  election,  initiative  and  refer- 


The  Teacher  and  the  Curriculum  63 

endum,  and  recall  have  taken  the  place,  in  a  measure, 
of  representative  government.  At  every  election  people 
are  called  upon  to  settle  political,  economic,  and  social 
questions  of  the  widest  significance. 

It  is  axiomatic  that  if  five-sixths  of  our  cliildren  do 
not  complete  the  high  school  and  if  they  are  forced  to 
settle  such  questions  as  these,  some  attention  of  more 
than  superficial  nature  must  be  given  to  this  phase  of 
their  education.  Culture  avails  one  nothing  when 
anarchy  prevails,  and  technical  or  industrial  training 
is  useless  when  hasty  or  unwise  laws  deaden  industry. 
The  conclusion,  in  theory  at  least,  is  inevitable — that 
any  educational  system  which  does  not  give  students 
some  conception  of  the  social  and  political  forces  of  the 
world  about  them  does  not  fulfill  its  proper  function. 

The  theory  of  the  case  is  thus  clear.  None  can  deny 
the  need  of  such  training  nor  that  the  training  should 
be  thorough  and  begun  early.  But  what  are  the  facts? 
Civics  is  probably  taught  in  some  form  or  other,  in 
practically  every  high  school  in  the  United  States. 
But,  with  this  much  granted,  there  are  two  things 
to  be  borne  in  mind.  One  is  that  in  most  of  the  schools 
it  is  an  elective.  With  our  insane  desire  to  fill  up  our 
high  school  curriculum  with  as  many  electives  as  pos- 
sible, and  a  seeming  desire  not  to  force  any  student 
to  take  any  study  that  he  does  not  wish  (unless,  as  one 
superintendent  conceded,  "it  be  English")  a  very  large 
proportion  of  our  students  never  take  civics  at  all. 
Enghsh  we  force  them  to  take;  in  most  places,  fortu- 
nately, we  also  compel  students  to  take  ancient  and 
modern  history' ;  vocational  work  we  rather  expect  to 
be  taken ;  but  for  this  great,  tremendously  significant 
responsibility  which  the  future  citizen  cannot  well  shirk, 
and  for  the  attempted  avoidance  of  which  we  unspar- 
ingly denounce  him,  we  make  little  or  no  provision  at  all. 


64  The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

As  President  George  Gunton  has  so  well  said,  "At 
present,  for  the  great  army  of  youths  who  go  from  the 
public  schools  to  the  workshop,  there  is  no  mental 
preparation  for  intelligent  dealing  with  these  subjects. 
They  are  left  to  jostle  against  their  fellows  in  the 
workshop,  to  hear  and  feel  the  causes  for  discontent; 
they  read  the  inflammatory  and  sensational  stuff  in  the 
newspapers,  listen  to  more  or  less  acrimonious  discus- 
sions of  social  questions  in  their  shop  meetings  and  or- 
ganizations ;  and  all  without  the  slightest  background 
of  educational  preparation  for  forming  rational  judg- 
ments. The  only  natural  result  is  that  their  decisions 
are  made  up  from  feelings  and  prejudices  created  by 
their  economic  environment."^ 

No  wonder,  then,  that  the  politician  of  the  lower 
type  can  dominate  our  political  life ;  that  public  opinion 
is  unable  to  settle  upon  any  course  of  action  and  compel 
results ;  and  that  there  are  many  intelligent  men  within 
our  own  land  who  urge,  more  or  less  under  their  breath 
but  none  the  less  strongly,  that  popular  government  is 
a  failure. 

No  further  argument  should  be  needed  to  estabhsh 
the  necessity  for  a  thorough  and  sane  course  in  the 
so-called  social  sciences.  And  from  what  has  been  said 
heretofore  it  must  be  evident  that  no  course  dealing 
with  these  subjects  can  be  of  greatest  value  unless 
local  conditions  and  peculiarities  are  kept  constantly 
in  mind. 

And  finally,  a  word  in  summary  about  the  curric- 
ulum. It  obviously  does  not  serve  the  demands  of 
adjustment  merely  to  introduce  rural  themes  and  agri- 
cultural instruction  in  the  rural  schools,  although  these 
things  help  much.  The  real  adjustment  is  between  the 
curriculum  and  the  particular  community  in  question. 
■National  Educational  Association,  1901,  p.  133. 


The  Teacher  and  the  Curriculum  65 

And  lastly,  the  end  of  it  all  should  be  kept  ever  in 
mind — to  build  up  a  live,  efficient,  and  socialized  farmer 
who  realizes  the  dignity  of  his  calling.  To  this  end 
must  all  branches  of  instruction  be  pointed,  and  each 
should  support  the  other  in  an  effort  to  realize  its 
attainment. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    PKOBLEM    OF    THE    ADULT 

'I^HE  discussion  up  to  this  point  has  indicated  the 
-*■  need  of  a  social  survey  in  every  community,  and  has 
suggested  the  method  by  which  this  survey  may  be 
conducted.  Resting  upon  the  facts  revealed  by  this 
study,  a  program  that  shall  be  constructive  in  every 
sense  of  the  word  may  be  built.  Two  of  the  principles 
involved  in  the  situation  have  been  made  clear.  First, 
the  teacher  must  be  trained  adequately  for  his  work; 
not  only  as  to  facts  and  method  of  teaching,  but  he 
must  also  appreciate  the  economic  and  sociological 
responsibilities  of  his  position.  In  the  second  place, 
there  must  be  a  curriculum  which  is  adapted  to  rural 
life,  and  which  shall  train  men  for  leadership  and  intel- 
ligent citizenship. 

We  come  now  to  the  final  principle — one  that  deals, 
in  a  sense,  with  the  end  of  the  whole  matter.  The  prob- 
lem of  the  adult  is  a  two-fold  one ;  it  must  treat  on  the 
one  hand,  with  the  man  or  woman  who  has  been  reared 
under  an  educational  system  that  has  produced  a 
product  worthy  of  the  effort.  It  has  already  been  sug- 
gested that  the  whole  object  of  rural  education  is  to 
turn  out  a  live,  efficient,  and  socialized  farmer,  and  in  so 
far  as  the  school  attains  this  object,  that  is  the  result. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  the  adult  who  has  not  had 
any  training  under  such  an  educational  system,  or  has 
had  it  only  in  part.  And  here  we  meet  with  a  much 
more  difficult  situation. 


The  Problem  of  the  Advlt  61 

It  is  because  the  school  has  not  always  done  its  full 
duty  toward  those  with  whom  it  has  had  to  deal,  that 
it  should  feel  some  responsibility  resting  upon  it  for 
the  success  of  these  persons,  later.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  inquire  at  length  into  the  social  center,  and 
it  is  made  the  subject  of  discussion  in  this  chapter 
merely  to  indicate  its  relation  to  the  other  factors  that 
have  been  under  consideration ;  and  to  point  out  some- 
thing of  the  part  which  the  teacher  should  play  in  social 
center  movements. 
/  The  social  center  is  extremely  desirable  in  the  city, 
-^^  but  its  rural  value  is  many  times  greater,  for  there  it 
supplies  a  need  seldom  met  by  any  other  agency.  Partly 
because  of  the  natural  individualism ;  partly  because  of 
the  greater  social  attractions  of  the  city;  partly  be- 
cause the  railroad  and  trolley  have  made  people  be- 
lieve that  the  urban  advantages  can  be  made  to  serve 
the  country  folk ;  partly  because  of  religious  sectarian- 
ism; and  largely  because  the  school  teacher  has  not 
seen  its  needs  and  possibilities,  country  life  has  become 
anything  but  attractive. 

The  weakness,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  is 
both  an  economic  and  a  social  one.  Yet  behind  both, 
in  a  large  measure,  rests  the  failure  to  realize  a  com- 
munity spirit,  and  for  this  lack  the  school  can  and 
should  be  held  responsible.  I  say  "should  be",  and  I 
say  this  because  where  such  a  movement  has  been  lack- 
ing, its  beginning  should  emanate  from  the  school.  Yet, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  school  has  failed  to  adapt  itself 
either  to  the  future  demands  of  the  child  or  to  the 
present  needs  of  the  adult.  The  former  we  have  con- 
sidered at  some  length.  What  is  the  teacher's  proper 
function   so  far  as  the  latter  is   concerned.'' 

In  the  first  place  let  it  be  noted  that  the  teacher  is 
the  natural  initiator  of  such  a  movement.    Non-sectar- 


68         The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

ian,  a  prominent  figure,  with  the  results  of  the  survey 
in  his  hands,  adapted  by  training  to  lead,  he  is  (or 
hould  be)  preeminently  fitted  for  the  task.  Or,  as 
Mr.  C.  J.  Galpin  has  put  it,  "The  rural  school  teacher 
is  a  paid  leader  in  the  neighborhood  and  community, 
usually  with  some  surplus  human  interest  and  some 
surplus  energy,  available  for  the  social  center  enter- 
prise. This  surplus  energy,  while  often  donated  volun- 
tarily to  the  public,  may  be  contracted  for  and  paid  for, 
and  so  made  a  part  of  the  institutional  life  of  the 
schools" /^ 

"The  initial  requirement,"  says  Ward,  "will  be  lead- 
ership. It  will  require  a  man  and  a  woman.  Two  are 
enough  to  start  with.  Their  qualities  of  leadership 
must  consist  of  broad  ideals,  untiring  energy,  patience, 
tact,  limiting  their  guidance  only  to  the  point  where 
people  think  for  themselves,  yet  ever  keeping  people 
alive  to  this  point.  It  will  require  constant  endeavor, 
they  must  be  always  'on  the  job'.  The  two  can  work 
wonders  in  any  isolated  community."  Are  not  these 
requirements  exactly  the  ones  that  are  called  for  in 
a  teacher? 

Granting  leadership,  "an  accessible  location,  a  build- 
ing equipped  for  gatherings  to  discuss,  to  play,  or  to 
feast;"  such  as  the  school  plant  furnishes,  "some  or- 
ganized responsible  control ;  frequent  occasions  of  a 
social  nature  appealing  to  all  ages  and  both  sexesj 
along  the  planes  of  fundamental  human  interest, — , 
form  some  of  the  essentials  of  a  rural  social  center.  The 
sufficient  justification  for  the  social  center  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  thought,  feeling,  and  experience  of  any 
individual  is  unavoidably  incomplete  and  in  the  further 
fact  that  by  looking  into  one  another's  eyes  and  enter- 
ing into  the  life  and  experiences  of  one  another  through 
imagination  and  sympathy,  the  individual  more  nearly 


The  Problem  of  the  Adult  69 

completes  himself  and  more  nearly  lives  the  life  of  the 
race.  The  rural  social  center  is  further  justified  by 
the  absolute  necessity  of  rural  community  acquaint- 
ance as  a  rational  means  of  creating  the  conditions 
under  which  the  reinforcing  social  institutions  of  school, 
club,  society,  municipality,  church  and  the  like,  usually 
thrive. 
^  ...  It  will  be  seen  .  .  .  that  no  rural  neighbor- 
hood ...  is  too  isolated  or  too  poor  to  afford  some 
form  of  social  center.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  also 
be  seen  that  no  rural  community  is  so  well-to-do  in  its 
farm  homes,  so  accessible  to  city  diversions  and  culture, 
that  it  may  not  profit  by  this  device  for  massing  the 
acquaintance  of  its  own  resident  people."  ^ 

To  the  question  as  precisely  how  to  start  a  club, 
obviously  no  general  answer  can  be  given.  One  must 
take  advantage  of  whatever  local  opportunities  pre- 
sent themselves.  "The  first  requisite  is  a  social  magnet. 
This  can  best  be  furnished  by  a  community  library, 
started  by  private  contributions  of  books  and  money." 
Clubs  should  be  organized,  sewing  and  cooking  clubs, 
literary  clubs,  clubs  for  the  young,  for  the  old,  and 
for  the  middle-aged,  clubs  for  men,  and  clubs  for 
women.^ 

Generally  speaking,  these  clubs  all  fall  into  one  of 
four  classes,  and  eventually  there  should  be  at  least  one 
club  in  each  class,  for  each  community.  They  may  be 
classified  as  "the  farmers'  club  proper,  which  consists 
of  a  mixed  audience ;  the  literary  society  or  lyceum, 
usually  composed  of  the  young  people  of  a  community 
who  have  been  brought  together  through  the  leadership 

^  Rural  Social  Centers  in  Wisconsin,  by  C.  J.  Galpin.  Bulletin 
234,  published  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin.     See  p.  8. 

^See  article  by  the  writer,  in  Educational  Review,  Oct.,  1914. 


70  The  Rural  School  and  the  Community 

of  a  country  teacher ;  ladies'  societies  or  circles,  whose 
work  is  social,  literary,  or  benevolent ;  and  purely  social 
organizations  of  young  people  in  the  country  who 
know  how  to  have  a  good  time  in  the  right  way."  ^ 

An  actual  illustration,  chosen  from  many  that  might 
be  cited,  may  serve  to  indicate  how  one  successful  social 
center  movement  was  started.  "On  one  occasion  the 
County  Training  School  Principal  and  the  writer  were 
speaking  to  an  audience  of  parents  and  pupils  called 
together  on  invitation  of  the  teacher.  One  of  the  speak- 
ers discussed  the  value  of  alfalfa  to  the  farmer  and  the 
best  means  of  securing  a  crop.  The  other  address  con- 
sidered means  of  community  development  and  the  im- 
portance of  united  effort.  At  the  close  of  the  talks  one 
interested  farmer  asked  'How  may  we  organize  a  farm- 
ers' club  in  this  neighborhood.?'  The  subject  was 
further  discussed,  interest  was  manifested,  and  plans 
were  laid  for  a  permanent  organization.  Committees 
on  constitution,  program,  and  club  name  were  appointed 
and  the  time  of  the  next  meeting  fixed.  The  club  has 
since  been  fully  organized  with  a  good  membership,  and 
meets  regularly.  The  people  felt  the  need  of  closer 
fellowship  and  welcomed  an  opportunity  to  meet  and 
consider  questions  of  common  interest.  Thus  the  Sauk 
Prairie  Farmers'  Club  came  to  be."  ■* 

In  this  same  county,  a  typical  one  in  the  state  of 
Wisconsin,  "there  are  now  in  operation  outside  of 
village  and  city,  twenty-five  country  clubs.  The  mem- 
bership ranges  from  twenty-five  or  thirty  members  in 
the  smaller  clubs  to  seventy  or  eighty  in  the  larger. 
In  some  no  membership  fee  is  charged  while  in  others 
annual  dues  of  from  ten  to  twenty-five  cents  are  paid. 
Meetings  are  held  once  in  two  weeks  at  the  members' 

*  Rural  Social   Devlopment.     The  Third  Annual  Report  of  the 
Wisconsin  Country  Life  Conference.     Jan.,  1913. 
*Ibid. 


The  Problem  of  the  Adult  71 

homes,  in  school  houses,  or  in  halls  owned  or  used  for 
this  purpose.  Three  of  the  clubs  now  own  buildings. 
In  one  of  these  oyster  suppers,  ice-cream  socials,  lec- 
tures, and  dances  are  held,  and  the  young  people  find 
means  of  social  enjoyment  in  the  neighborhood."  ^ 

It  should  be  noted  that  this  movement  is  not,  and 
should  never  be  allowed  to  become  "an  effort  from 
without  to  amuse  or  entertain  the  country  people.  It 
is  not  a  moving  picture  song  and  dance  performance. 
It  is  a  movement  from  within.  A  movement  on  the  part 
of  farm  folks  to  provide  right  means  of  social  enjoy- 
ment, a  movement  that  develops  leaders  and  builds  up 
communities  through  social,  educational,  and  economic 
cooperation."  ^ 

We  are  prone  to  think  of  efforts  of  this  kind  as  hav- 
ing for  their  object  mere  social  pleasure.  Nothing 
could  be  further  from  the  real  truth,  and  the  teacher 
must  be  careful  not  to  allow  himself  to  be  misunder- 
stood in  this  respect. 

The  leaders  of  the  movement  should  keep  in  mind 
that  a  federation  of  social  center  clubs  in  any  county  is 
to  be  desired,  eventually.  The  reasons  for  this,  when 
the  time  becomes  ripe  for  it,  are  quite  obvious.  All 
rural  organizations  should  be  invited  to  membership  in 
the  association,  but  all  persons  interested  in  rural  wel- 
fare should  be  invited  to  attend  the  meetings  and  take 
part  in  the  discussions. 

The  experience  of  the  various  clubs  now  existing 
certainly  proves  the  value  of  rural  organizations.  It  is 
a  part  of  the  work  of  a  federation  to  assist  in  the  or- 
ganization of  farmers'  clubs  as  far  as  possible.  The 
county  superintendent  of  schools  may  well  be  secretary 
of  such  an  association  since  he  is  generally  in  close  touch 

^  Rural  Social  Development.  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Wis- 
consin Country  Life  Conference.     Jan.,  1913. 

Uhid. 


72  The  Rural  School  and  the  Commwnity 

with  nearly  all  rural  organizations  in  the  county.  He 
knows  the  leaders  in  different  clubs  and  communities 
who  may  be  called  upon  to  assist  neighboring  clubs. 
He  may  speak  before  these  clubs  and  urge  upon  other 
communities  the  nec^  of  organized  community  effort. 
Thus  the  endeavor  should  be  to  make  the  association 
directly  valuable  to  the  clubs  already  in  existence  and 
also  an  instrument  that  will  encourage  other  communi- 
ti^  to  organize  for  social  improvement. 
/'And  having  gotten  the  thing  under  way,  the  teacher 
should  see  to  it  that  in  all  local  enterprises  of  what- 
soever nature  the  school  should  cooperate  with  the 
other  social  and  economic  agencies  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. They  should  always  work  hand  in  hand  for  the 
good  of  children  and  adults  alike,  always  willing  to  co- 
operate, mutually  supporting,  dealing  with  different 
phases  of  the  same  big  problem.  For  all  of  these  activi- 
ties the  school-house  should  serve  as  a  common  meeting 
place  and  as  a  clearing  house  for  the  community's 
activities.  And,  in  the  last  place,  all  this  implies  that 
the  teacher  must  be  a  social  worker.  Nothing  could 
be  clearer  than  that  she  can  not  do  this  unless  she  have 
a  real  grasp  of  the  sociological  and  economic  situation 
and  a  broad  grasp  of  its  significance. 

So  may  be  reached  the  goal  toward  which  we  started 
out — a  teacher  trained  to  understand  both  her  children 
and  her  community,  a  curriculum  adapted  not  only  to 
rural  conditions  in  general  but  to  each  one  in  particular, 
and  a  school  center  which  concentrates  and  develops 
all  of  these  forces  that  lead  to  the  upbuilding  of  a 
wholesome  rural  life.  From  it  will  come  service  both 
to  the  present  and  to  the  future  generations,  and  a 
service  that  will  find  its  reward,  financial,  social,  mental. 
Who  could  ask  for  more.?     - 


/'v^  - 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    TRAINING    OF    THE    TEACHER 

BUT,"  says  the  teacher,  "we  have  heard  all  of  this 
before.  When  I  was  in  the  Normal  we  were 
told  repeatedly  that  we  ought  to  know  our  community. 
What  we  haven't  heard,  but  want  to,  is  a  definite  con- 
crete application  of  the  thing."  The  teacher  who  re- 
plies thus  is  right,  and  he  knows  whereof  he  speaks. 
There  has  been  a  wealth  of  generalization,  but  little  of 
specific  application.  Whether  it  be  due  to  failure  to 
realize  the  necessity  for  it  or  to  unwillingness  on  the 
part  of  speakers  and  writers  to  make  the  effort  re- 
quired to  be  exact  and  not  vague,  there  is  no  means 
of  telling. 

And  yet  another  says,  "Of  course  one  should  know 
something  of  the  community,  but  why  know  all  of  these 
things  ?  They  are  good  things  to  know,  and  all  of  that, 
but  I  fail  to  see  any  connection  between  the  rate  of 
interest  that  farmers  pay  on  their  loans  or  the  number 
of  socialists  in  a  community  and  the  school  curriculum." 

And  yet  the  relation  is  direct  and  more  or  less  im- 
mediate. Before  pointing  it  out,  however,  there  are 
certain  fundamental  considerations  that  must  be  borne 
in  mind.  To  these,  even  at  the  risk  of  repeating  some 
things  that  seem  commonplace,  it  is  desired  briefly  to 
call  attention.  If  there  be  any  truth  in  the  position 
thus  far  assumed,  then  it  necessarily  follows  that  each 
and  every  community  is  more  or  less  peculiar  unto 
itself  and  diff^ers  to  a  degree  at  least  from  all  other 

73 


74         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commvmity 

communities.  It  is  because  of  this  fact  that  it  has  been 
urged  that  the  problem  of  adjustment  must  be  dealt 
with  by  each  locality  more  or  less  independently  of  all 
other  localities.  There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  certain 
fundamental  principles  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  every- 
where, and  that  are,  in  their  own  way,  quite  universally 
true. 

The  weaknesses  of  the  rural  school  system  of  the 
United  States  has  been  treated  times  without  number. 
It  becomes  increasingly  apparent  that  the  time  has 
come  to  state  the  problem  constructively  and  affirma- 
tively, and  in  view  of  a  recognized  weakness,  to  indicate 
the  basic  principles  upon  which  the  socialization  of 
the  rural  school  must  rest. 

The  negative  aspect  of  the  work  has  been  done.  The 
attention  of  thinking  men  and  women  has  been  directed 
to  the  lamentable  condition  so  general  in  our  rural 
education.  What  is  needed  to-day  is  a  constructive 
statement — the  laying  down  of  a  program  of  regener- 
ation and  uplift. 

The  task  thus  stated  is  a  large  one,  and  cannot  be 
fully  dealt  with  short  of  a  tremendous  amount  of  ex- 
perience and  thought.  The  time  has  not  come  for  a 
final  statement  even  of  the  conditions  to  be  met;  and 
let  us  hope  that  it  never  will  come.  Moreover,  each 
locality  must  largely  deal  with  its  own  problems,  and 
hence  a  general  statement,  universally  true,  can  con- 
sist of  little  more  than  mere  outline.  The  general  fea- 
tures of  this  outline  can  be  suggested. 

The  fundamental  principles  may  be  reduced  to  three: 
(1)  a  'properly  trained  teacher;  (2)  an  adajjtation  of 
the  curriculum  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  children  of 
school  age  m  that  particular  comrrmnity;  (3)  an  ex- 
tension of  the  activities  of  the  school  so  as  to  serve 
to  an  increasing  extent  the  needs  of  present  day  adults. 

I 


The  Training  of  the  Teacher  75 

A  general  word  may  not  be  amiss  at  this  point  before 
passing  on  to  a  more  detailed  consideration  of  the  first 
of  these  ideas.  It  is  constantly  urged,  and  it  must  be 
confessed,  with  a  goodly  show  of  reason,  that  a  realiza- 
tion of  this  ideal,  good  though  it  may  be,  depends  upon 
the  existence  of  two  things  which  are  lacking  in  the 
average  community ;  namely,  financial  support  and 
moral  appreciation.  It  will  readily  be  conceded  that 
to  attain  its  fullest  measure  of  success  there  must  be 
an  adequate  school  plant,  well  equipped,  and  in  the 
hands  of  an  able  teacher ;  and  that  to  gain  these  things 
money  must  be  obtained.  It  will  be  conceded  with 
equal  willingness  that  an  increase  of  the  teacher's  sal- 
ary, for  example  (assuming  ahility  to  give)  rests  upon 
an  appreciation  of  the  problem  and  an  existence  of  an 
ideal  that  does  not  exist  in  very  many  communities  at 
the  present  time.  These  two  difficulties  are  not  synon- 
omous.  No  one  who  has  kept  abreast  of  recent  studies 
in  rural  economics  need  be  told  that  the  farmer  is  not 
the  universally  wealthy  man  that  he  is  often  assumed 
to  be.  Doubtless,  not  over  one-fourth  of  them  are  what 
is  termed  "well-to-do."  If  such  be  the  case,  then  there 
is  a  limit  to  the  funds  which  he  can  expend  on  salaries 
and  equipment,  however  much  he  may  desire  advance 
along  these  lines.  On  the  other  hand,  so  far  as  results 
are  concerned,  no  more  is  gained  in  communities  where 
lack  of  appreciation  causes  the  difficulty.  There  is 
no  class  of  people  that  has  gained  such  a  reputation  of 
being  "close-fisted"  as  retired  farmers,  and  too  often 
the  same  epithet  is  applied  to  wealthy  ones.  A  man  will 
not  spend  money,  ordinarily,  for  movements  in  which 
he  has  no  interest.  Obviously,  then,  development  of  in- 
terest is  the  first  thing  to  be  undertaken  in  these  com- 
munities, and  generally  speaking,  a  lack  at  this  point 
is  more  discouraging  than  at  the  other,  but  the  need  is 


76         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commwnity 

equally  great.  Beyond  all  question,  then,  these  two 
difficulties,  plus  a  teacher  with  no  broader  vision,  con- 
stitute the  great  obstacle  to  rural  development.  But 
with  these  things  fully  appreciated,  it  is  submitted  that 
any  live  teacher  who  goes  into  a  community  with  a 
realization  of  the  rural  problem;  who  understands  the 
method  and  the  place  of  a  social  survey ;  and  who,  with- 
out waiting  for  a  universal  and  visible  manifestation 
of  this  moral  appreciation  makes,  in  his  own  way,  the 
most  of  such  opportunities  as  may  be  at  his  disposal, 
will  not  need  to  wait  a  life-time  to  find  the  community 
back  of  him.  And  where  one's  moral  sympathy  goes, 
there  also  goes  one's  money.  Aye,  we  may  go  further 
even  than  this.  If  the  sympathy  be  developed  and 
the  school  do  its  full  share,  then  even  inability  to  con- 
tribute may  oftentimes  be  corrected. 

One  cannot  measure  the  extent  of  the  return  from  a 
strong  community  spirit.  The  frank  facing  of  eco- 
nomic problems,  a  collective  effort  to  meet  them,  a 
cooperation  with  outside  agencies  of  value,  may  well 
transform  a  community  of  a  low  grade  of  income  to 
one  very  appreciably  higher.  The  writer  has  seen  this 
too  many  times  not  to  know  that  it  is  true.  When 
people  are  shown  the  new  ideal,  and  are  convinced,  even 
in  little  ways,  of  its  value,  the  rest  will  follow  if  one 
but  be  patient.  "There's  a  reason"  for  the  dearth  of 
concentrated  interest. 

The  first  of  the  aforementioned  propositions  has  to 
do  with  the  teacher.  In  many  respects,  it  is  by  far 
the  more  important  aspect  of  the  problem.  The  per- 
sonal element,  however,  has  been  dealt  with  so  copiously 
by  others  that  there  is  little  need  at  this  time  to  empha- 
size it  further,  and  if  those  in  the  profession  have  not 
already  been  touched  by  the  appeal,  then  surely  it 
does  not  lie  within  the  power  of  the  present  writer  to 


The  Tramvng  of  tlie  Teacher  77 

move  them.  It  is  desired  merely  to  put  side  by  side 
certain  demands  that  perhaps  have  not  always  been 
so  grouped  in  times  past. 

The  need  of  an  insistence  upon  a  fair  proportion 
of  professional  work  is  being  recognized  more  and 
more.  In  self-defense,  the  state  should  insist  that  no 
man  or  woman  be  permitted  to  teach  in  any  public 
school  of  the  state  unless  he  or  she  can  produce  evi- 
dence to  the  effect  that  work  has  been  pursued  in  a  dis- 
tinctly accredited  professional  school  for  at  least  two 
years.  It  may  be  urged  that  tliis  works  an  injustice 
to  those  who  prepare  themselves  for  the  profession 
outside  of  any  institution.  But  in  reply  it  may  be  said 
that  seldom,  if  ever,  is  such  preparation  as  this  ade- 
quate, and  never  is  it  the  equivalent  or  work  done  under 
a  competent  instructor.  The  number  who  do  thus  pre- 
pare themselves  is  not  large,  in  any  case. 

A  confusion  of  thought  may  easily  arise  in  this  con- 
nection. There  is  in  many  of  the  civil  service  examina- 
tions of  the  present  day,  an  oral  as  well  as  a  written 
examination.  The  object  is,  to  be  certain  that  the  ap- 
plicant not  only  knows  specified  things,  but  to  be  sure 
that  he  has  a  personal  fitness  for  the  position  for  which 
he  may  be  applying.  The  former  fact  may  be  dis- 
covered from  the  written  answers  on  the  paper;  the 
latter  never  except  by  personal  interview.  Much  the 
same  thing  is  true  of  those  about  to  go  into  the  profes- 
sion of  teaching.  Only  in  a  professional  institution 
can  a  practice  department  be  organized ;  in  no  other 
place  can  personal  fitness  be  so  well  judged  by  those 
who  are  competent  to  judge.  The  work  may  be  done 
in  a  normal  school  or  in  a  college,  preferably  the  for- 
mer; it  may  be  done  in  some  institution  similar  to  the 
county  training  schools  of  Wisconsin;  it  may  even  be 
done  in  teacher-training  courses  in  the  high  schools, 


78         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commvmity 

if  there  is  no  other  way  out  of  it;  but  it  surely  should 
be  done  somewhere.  Unquestionably  one  of  the  very 
greatest  causes  of  weakness  in  our  rural  schools,  is  the 
inadequacy  of  preparation  and  the  personal  incompe- 
tency of  the  teachers.  I  know  of  no  way  in  which  this 
can  be  remedied  other  than  by  professional  training 
in  an  institution  fitted  for  such  work. 

Nor  is  it  sufficient  to  stop  here.  As  the  Ohio  Com- 
mission has  so  well  pointed  out,  no  mere  written  exam- 
ination can  serve  as  an  adequate  test  of  pedagogical 
training  or  of  teaching  ability.  Such  examinations 
should  by  no  means  be  abolished,  but  on  the  other  hand, 
they  are  not  in  themselves  satisfactory.  An  actual 
classroom  test  should  be  insisted  upon.  Many  people 
can  tell  exactly  how  to  do  a  great  many  things  that 
they  cannot  actually  do  themselves,  and  this  is  particu- 
larly true  of  teaching.  A  written  quiz  to  test  knowledge 
and  an  actual  classroom  test  to  judge  teaching  ability 
— then  the  granting  of  a  certificate,  mean  something 
worth  while.  Nothing  can  be  more  harmful  either  to 
pupil  or  teacher,  than  to  send  a  graduate  of  a  grade 
school  back  to  a  rural  school  to  teach.  The  community 
that  allows  it  gets  just  what  it  pays  for — the  poorest 
possible  product  on  the  market.  We  would  never  think 
of  sending  our  children  to  fake  physicians,  but  we  are 
too  often  willing  to  place  them  for  seven  or  eight  years 
under  a  fake  teacher. 

Adequate  supervision  is,  of  course,  implied.  Whether 
this  supervision  be  conducted  by  the  principal  or  a 
state  inspector  is  not  so  important,  though  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two  is  devoutly  to  be  wished.  Its  impor- 
tance, however,  will  be  recognized  at  once,  and  it  may 
be  passed  without  further  mention  other  than  to  insist 
that  this  supervision  must  be  by  one  w^ho  is  whole- 
heartedly in  the  rural  problem,  and  who  is   able   tQ 


The  Training  of  the  Teacher  79 

judge  and  suggest,  not  of  the  classroom  work  alone, 
but  of  the  teacher's  efficiency  as  a  social  force  in  the 
community.  Here  again  we  meet  with  the  old  difficulty 
of  lack  of  appreciation  and  training.  It  is  not  strange 
that  a  supervisor  who  has  never  been  trained  to  see  the 
true  relation  between  school  and  community ;  who  trusts 
to  his  personal  judgment  as  to  existing  facts;  and 
whose  interests  lie  in  urban  matters,  would  fail  to  criti- 
cize a  teacher  for  inability  or  unwillingness  to  deal  with 
the  rural  problem  as  a  whole.  So  the  fact  remains  that 
teachers  are  judged,  almost  entirely,  upon  classroom 
work.  Now,  class-room  work  is  essential  and  primary, 
but  surely  not  exclusive.  Teachers  have  sometimes 
been  forced  out  of  localities  because  of  actions  which 
the  community  would  not  tolerate ;  but  it  is  rare  indeed, 
that  a  supervisor  or  a  community  has  urged  a  teacher's 
removal  for  what  he  did  not  do.  We  are  too  apt  to 
commend  as  "unusual"  a  teacher  who  does  some  con- 
structive things,  and  to  say  nothing  of  him  who  does 
not  engage  in  betterment  work.  The  sole  tests  of  effi- 
ciency are  apt  to  be  whether  or  not  the  children  like 
the  teacher,  and  whether  or  not  the  Superintendent 
thinks  he  knows  his  subject.  One  cannot  be  too  harsh 
with  the  teacher  if  the  supervisor  does  not  do  his  share. 
We  come  now  to  a  third  phase  of  the  teacher-side 
of  the  problem,  and  one  that  is  not  always  so  clearly 
seen.  The  need  of  professional  training  was  mentioned 
above  and  reference  was  made  in  that  instance  to  train- 
ing in  what  is  technically  known  as  the  pedagogical 
subjects.  But  if  the  rural  school  is  to  take  the  place 
wliich  it  must  ultimately  assume,  the  training  must  go 
far  beyond  this.  In  the  common  school  branches,  mere 
ability  to  absorb  certain  facts,  combined  with  an  under- 
standing of  the  history  of  education  and  of  the  psy- 
chology of  teaching,  even  though  tJie  teacher  be  able 


80         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commitmity 

to  get  the  desired  facts  to  the  children,  does  not  mean 
that  he  attains  his  highest  function.  It  is  realized  that 
this  is  a  far-reaching  statement  and  it  is  one  with  which 
many  may  not  be  willing  to  agree.  The  test  of  a  good 
teacher  has  always  been  the  ability  of  the  person  ta 
maintain  order  and  force  the  children  to  understand 
certain  facts  and  processes.  If  these  things  were  done 
well,  that  generally  ended  the  matter.  But  I  submit, 
that  it  is  this  ideal  of  teaching  that  has  so  narrowed 
and  cramped  the  profession  as  to  rob  it  of  its  highest 
meaning.  Nowhere  has  this  been  more  true  than  in  the 
case  of  the  rural  school.  Partly  because  he  has  been 
inadequately  prepared;  partly  because  he  has  had  no 
one  to  give  him  a  vision  of  the  social  significance  of 
education ;  and  partly  because  rural  teaching  has  nevei* 
been  made  a  life  work  but  has  only  been  thought  of  as  a 
step  toward  an  urban  position  (if  indeed  it  has  been 
entered  with  any  thought  at  all  of  remaining  a  teacher), 
the  average  rural  teacher  of  the  past  has  not  been  a 
true  success.  There  can  be  no  controverting  the  fact 
that  there  has  been  no  other  one  cause  which  has  had 
more  to  do  with  the  decline  of  rural  life,  than  the  failure 
on  the  part  of  teachers  to  make  the  school  a  social 
force  of  import,  not  alone  to  the  school  children,  but 
to  the  community  at  large. 

Now,  the  ability  to  make  the  work  what  it  ought  to 
be,  depends  in  no  small  measure  upon  the  nature  of 
the  teacher's  training.  No  teacher  is  prepared  merely 
because  he  knows  the  facts  which  are  to  be  presented 
and  has  had,  in  addition,  a  certain  amount  of  so-called 
professional  work.  Two  things  are  supremely  neces- 
sary. One  is,  bearing  in  mind  that  no  teacher  ought 
to  be  granted  a  certificate  without  professional  work, 
that  when  the  prospective  teacher  enters  the  normal 
school  he  should  have  much  of  his   general  training 


The  Training  of  the  Teaclier  81 

behind  him.  The  normal  school  is  a  technical  school 
and  must  be  treated  as  such.  Law  students,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  best  of  our  law  schools,  are  not  permitted 
to  take  up  any  study  of  law  until  a  generous  amount 
of  general  academic  work  has  been  completed.  In  some 
quarters  the  same  degree  of  general  preparation  is  be- 
ing demanded  for  engineering  students,  as  preparatory 
to  distinctly  technical  work.  In  many  places  these  par- 
ticular branches  of  work  are  not  allowed  until  the 
junior  year  of  general  college  work  has  been  completed. 
So  it  should  be  in  the  profession  of  teaching.  The  nor- 
mal school  is  primarily  a  place  to  learn  how  to  teach, 
not  what.  The  situation  in  this  connection  is  unfor- 
tunate. Among  university  teachers  at  large  there  is 
no  other  class  of  students  held  to  be  so  unsatisfactory 
as  normal  school  graduates,  and  the  reason  is  not  solely 
jealousy  of  the  normal  schools.  The  almost  universal 
criticism  is  made  that  such  students  deal  in  generali- 
ties, do  not  think  for  themselves,  and  lack  a  compre- 
hensive understanding  of  fundamental  principles.  The 
charge  is  easily  overstated,  but  there  is  much  truth 
in  it.  Lack  of  uniform  preparation  on  the  part  of  those 
entering  renders  the  problem  a  difficult  one  for  the 
normal  schools  to  handle;  but  the  plan  of  "scattera- 
tion"  aggravates  the  situation.  This  plan  constitutes 
the  taking  of  ten  weeks  of  one  subject,  fifteen  weeks 
of  some  other,  and  perhaps  twenty  weeks  of  still 
another.  It  is  no  wonder  that  hard,  concentrated  effort 
does  not  produce  satisfactory  results.  Another  diffi- 
culty arises  from  insufficient  knowledge  of  facts  prior 
to  the  taking  of  pedagogical  training.  The  writer  has 
heard  this  answer  nine  times  out  of  ten  from  those  to 
whom  was  put  the  question  of  the  value  of  normal 
school  training:  "One  thing  is  to  be  kept  in  mind — 
one  should  not  learn  how  tp  teach  until  one  has  first 


82         The  Rural  School  and  the  Commijmity 

learned  some  facts  to  be  presented."  Whether  or  not 
this  charge  of  lacking  knowledge  of  facts  is  true,  it 
is  something  for  our  normal  school  teachers  to  think 
about.  But,  having  provided  in  one  way  or  another 
for  this  informational  training,  it  should  never  be  for- 
gotten that  the  institution  in  question  is  a  professional 
school,  and  it  must  always  be  regarded  as  such. 

The  second  thing  to  be  insisted  upon,  is  that  the 
would-be  teacher,  upon  admission  to  this  technical 
school,  be  required  to  specialize,  within  reasonable  lim- 
its. Not  alone  that  literature  or  manual-training  be 
selected  as  a  major,  but  that  each  person  select  between 
the  common  school  and  the  high  school;  and  between 
the  city  school  and  the  country  school.  The  nature  of 
the  tasks  in  these  various  schools  are  quite  different 
and  demand  different  preparations. 

If  we  grant,  then,  that  these  things,  though  a  little 
revolutionary,  are  necessary — as  must  be  done  upon 
second  thought — we  must,  with  the  rural  teacher  in 
mind,  ask  ourselves  what  should  be  the  nature  of  his 
training.  Three  things  must  he  learn  aside  from  the 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching  and  the  professional 
aspect  of  history  and  arithmetic.  (1)  He  needs  a  more 
or  less  thorough  study  of  the  principles  of  sociology; 
(2)  he  should  be  required  to  make  a  special  study  of 
rural  economic  and  sociological  problems,  following 
such  texts  as  Taylor's  "Elements  of  Rural  Economics" 
and  Gillette's  "Rural  Sociology";  (3)  he  should  have 
some  training  in  the  making  of  a  social  survey,  accom- 
panied by  what  may  be  termed  laboratory  work — that 
is,  some  actual  field  work  under  direction.-^ 

*  "Perhaps  this  particular  part  of  the  work  can  best  be  done  in 
sociological  seminars,  such  as  are  conducted  at  the  Kalamazoo 
(Mich.)  State  Normal  School  and  by  the  Georgia  Club  of  the 
State  Normal  School  of  Athens,  Georgia,  An  ever-increasing 
number  of  institutions  are  giving  courses  especially  for  rural 
teachers.    The  work  is  still  in  its  infancy,  however. 


The  Trammg  of  the  Teacher  83 

The  argument  for  such  a  training  would  seem,  upon 
serious  consideration,  to  be  obvious.  Indeed,  we  might 
well  assume  this  to  be  true  were  it  not  that  neither  in 
the  normal  schools  nor  in  the  secondary  schools  is  this 
field  given  anywhere  near  its  due  consideration.  We  per- 
sist in  sending  men  and  women,  who  have  had  no  satis- 
factory training  along  lines  of  economic  and  political 
questions,  out  into  the  schools  to  train  future  citizens 
in  right  habits  of  thought  upon  such  questions.  And 
these  teachers  are,  as  tests  have  shown,  lamentably 
ignorant  of  even  the  important  current  events.  No 
wonder,  when  the  teacher  has  been  neither  impressed 
nor  trained  in  the  right  way,  that  deserving  impor- 
tance is  not  attached  to  this  theme  elsewhere.^ 

The  result  is  that  children  do  not  become  social  in 
the  broadest  sense,  leaders  fitted  for  this  task  do  not 
appear,  and  citizenship  degenerates. 

The  more  immediate  effect,  as  though  this  were  not 
enough,  is  perhaps  even  more  unsatisfactory.  It  is 
that  the  teacher  fails  to  attack  the  community  prob- 
lems which  arise.  Some  mention  has  already  been  made 
of  the  seriousness  of  this  situation,  and  more  will  be 
said  later. 

These  things,  th^en,  should  the  teacher  have — a 
thorough  grasp  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  texts  or 
work  he  is  called  upon  to  teach;  a  working  knowledge 
of  psychology  and  the  theory  of  teaching;  a  compre- 
hensive and  eminently  practical  training  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  economic  and  sociological  questions  peculiar 
to  rural  communities.  One  lacking  in  any  of  these 
must,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  fail  to  accomplish 
his  full  mission,  while  there  is  no  limit  to  the  things 
one  can  do  with  them. 

2  See  the  writer's  "School  Science  in  the  Secondary  Schools."  School 
Review,  XXIII,  455-64. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

'T^HE  following  bibliography  is,/)f  course,  suggestive 
^  rather  than  exhaustive.  No  effort  whatsoever  has 
been  made  to  cover  the  vefst  amount  of  material  dealing 
with  the  rural  school  in  all  its  manifold  phases.  Em- 
phasis has  been  placed  upon  material,  both  descriptive 
and  illustrative,  dealing  with  the  survey  itself.  Some 
references  have  been  listed,  dealing  with  the  training  of 
rural  teachers  as  well  as  some  which  take  up  the  ques- 
tion of  correlation  between  school  and  community. 
Educational  Survey  of   Three  Counties  in  Alabama: 

Alabama— Dept.  Educa.  Jl.  1,  1914. 
A  Method  of  Making  a  Social  Survey.  (Galpin)  Univ. 
of  Wise.  Agricul.  Exp.   Station  Circular  of  In- 
formation No.  20. 
Social  Survey:  its  reasons,  Tnethods,  and  results  (Dan- 
iels) Conf.  Char,  and  Cor.  1910:  507-40. 
Sociology  and  the  Social  Survey.  (Riley)  Am.  Jo.  So. 

16:  818-33. 
Survey  and  the  Smaller  City.     (Palmer)  World  To-day 

21  828-32. 
Rural  Life  Surveys  Conducted  by  the  Depart,  of  Church 
and   Country  Life   Board   of   Home   Missions    of 
Presbyterian  Church. 
Social  Survey   in  Rural  Education   (Lewis)     Educa. 

R.  48:266-87. 
Report  of  the  Ohio  State  School  Survey  Commission, 

Jan.  1914. 
Knoming  One's  Omn  Community  (Aronovici)  American 
Unitarian  Asso.   Social  Service  Series,  Bull.  No. 
85 


86  Bihliography 

20. 

An  Agricultural  Survey  (Warren  and  Livermore)  Bul- 
letin No.  295  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  Univ. 
(1911) 

Rural  Schools.  (Wild)  Survey  30:  525. 

Social  and  Education^  Survey  of  the  Rural  Commun- 
ity.    (Wilson)  Na.  Educa.  Asso.  1912:  281. 

National  Clearing  House  for  Social  Surveys  and  Ex- 
hibits.    Survey  29:  1. 

County  Superintendents  and  Rural  Communities. 
(Lathrop)  Na.  Educa.  Asso.  1911:  35. 

State  Normal  Schools  and  the  Rural  School  Problem. 
(Loomis)  Educa.  R.  39:  484. 

What  the  Normal  Schools  Can  and  Ought  to  Do  With 
the  Training  of  Teachers  for  Rural  Communities. 
(Hayes)   Na.  Educa.  Asso.  1913:  546. 

Application  of  the  Social  Survey  to  Small  Communities. 
(Gillin)  Am.  Jo.  So.  17:647. 

Course  of  Study  for  the  Preparation  of  Rural  School 
Teachers.  (Mentaller  and  Craig)  U.  S.  Bur. 
Educa.  Bull.  1912:  1,  P.  1. 

Readjustment  of  a  Rural  High  School  to  the  Needs  of 
a  Community.  (Brown)  il.  U.  S.  Bur.  Educa. 
Bull.  1912;  20  pp.  1-31. 

Community  Service  Week.  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Raleigh,  N.  C. 

Education  in  the  Country  for  the  Country.  (Ziller) 
Na.  Educa.  Assoc.  1910:  245-53. 

Rural  Schools  and  Community  Needs.  (Holden)  Na. 
Educa.  Asso.  1913:  592. 

Solving  Country  Life  Problems  in  Mass.  (Andress) 
Educa.  35:91. 

Where  Home  and  School  Really  Meet.  Ladies  H.  J. 
31 :46. 

Opportunity  of  the  Country  School  Teacher.     (Wo- 


Bibliography  87 

mack)  J.  Educa.  79:35. 
The  Georgia  Club.  (Branson)  U.  S.  Bur.  Educa.  Bull. 

1913,  No.  23. 
Constructive  Rural  Sociology.   (Gillette)   Chap.  XVI. 

and  XVIII. 
Rural  Social  Centers  in  Wisconsin.    (Galpin)  Bull.  No. 

234,  Agric.  Exp.  Station,  Univ.  Wise. 
Rural  Social  Development,  being  the  report,  edited  by 

Galpin,  of  the  Wisconsin  Country  Life  Conference. 

Univ.  Wise. 
Effective  Exhibition  of  a  Community  Survey,     il.  Am. 

City  12 :  95-100. 
Father  Springfield  in  the  Mirror.     (Lindsay)   Survey 

33:  316-18. 
Development  of  the  Social  Survey.    (Harrison)  Conf. 

Char,  and  Cor.  1913:  345-53. 
Opening  the  Eyes  of  a  Community.    (Sands)  Am.  City 

11:405. 
Social  and  Economic  Survey  of  a  Rural  Township  in 

Southern  Minnesota.     (Thompson   and   Warber) 

Am.  Jo.  So.  (Review)  19:  676-8. 
A  Study  of  Rural  Schools  in  Texas.  (White  and  Davis) 

Bull.  Univ.  Texas  No.  364  (Extension  Series  No. 

62.) 
How  to  Make  a  Social  Survey.  (Jenkins)  Ind.  74 :  1335. 
Spread  of  the  Survey  Idea.     Survey  30:157. 
Educational  Survey  of  a  Suburban  and  Rural  County. 

U.  S.  Bur.  Educa.  BuU.  1913 :  32  p.  1-68. 
How  May   a   Community  Learn  to  Meet  Its  School 

Needs?     (Allen)  Na.  Educa.  Asso.  1912:  384. 
ScJiool  Surveys  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Ohio.    El. 

School  Teacher  13 :  362. 
Standards    and    Tests    for    Measuring    Efficiency    of 

Schools  or  Systems  of  Schools.     (Strayer)  Biblio- 
graphy. U.  S.  Bur.  Educa.  Bull.  1913:  13,  pp. 


88  Bibliography 

1-23. 

Efficiency  and  the  Rural  School — Survey  of  Lake 
County,  Ohio. 

Social  Responsibility  of  the  School,  the  Rural  Situa- 
tion. King,  "Social  Aspects  of  Education."  pp. 
24-53. 


INDEX 


Adjustment  through  Survey, 
32,  74. 

Adult,  two-fold  problem  of,  66. 

Agricultural  communities,  clas- 
sification of,  56;  illustrative, 
56-57,  59,  61. 

Agriculture,  failure  of,  14; 
teaching  of,  57-58;  experi- 
mental work  of,  58;  texts  on, 
58. 

Appreciation,  lack  of,  75. 

Assistants,  44-45. 

Bethlehem  Steel  Works,  33-34. 
Blanks,  survey,  26-31. 
Branches,  adapted,  56. 
Bulletins,  survey,  44. 

Charts,  illustrations  of  survey, 
22-24. 

Children,  education  of,  63. 

Citizenship,  degeneration  of,  83. 

Civics,  teaching  of,  63. 

Classroom,  tests  for,  78. 

Clearing  house,  community  ac- 
tivities in,  16. 

Cloud  of  Commercialism,  The 
dark,  22. 

Clubs,  country,  70-71;  four 
classes  of,  69-70;  how  to 
start,  69;  federation  of,  71. 

Communities,  literature  for 
various,  61;  needs  of,  59. 

Community  spirit,  lack  of,  67. 

Constructive  program,  formu- 
lation of,  52. 

Cooperation,  need  of,  52. 


Current  events,  need  of  using, 
83. 

Curriculum,  adapted,  55;  spe- 
cial subjects  of,  55-56. 

Curriculum  and  community, 
adjustment  of,  64. 

Curriculum-making,  illustra- 
tions of,  57. 

Data,  collection  of,  47;  Presen- 
tation of,  51-33;  tabulation 
of,  50-51 ;  use  of,  50. 

Diagrams  and  charts,  23-26. 

Economic  problems,  facing  of, 
76. 

Education,  end  of,  33. 

Educational  system,  require- 
ments of,  63. 

Educational  effort,  plan  of, 
52. 

Efficiency,  examples  of,  33,  34, 
52-53;  increased,  32;  School, 
35;  teachers  favor,  52. 

Electives,  choice  of,  63. 

Executive  Committee,  work  of, 
46-47. 

Examinations,  Civil  Service,  77. 

Facts,  as  basis,  40;  and  public 
policies,  12;  disregarded,  12; 
need  of,  11,  82. 

Farmer,  building  of  efficient, 
65;  position  of,  15;  schooling 
of  average,  55. 

Farming,  as  a  business  propo- 
sition, 14. 


89 


90 


Index 


Federation,  of  clubs,  71;  secre- 
tary of,  71-72;  work  of,  71. 

Financial  and  Moral  Support, 
lack  of,  75. 

First  Year,  teacher's  time  dur- 
ing, 41. 

Georgia    Club,    53-53;    methods 

of,  53-54. 
General  head,  teacher  as,  45. 
Government,  new  fields  for,  62- 

63;  teaching  of,  61. 

Helpers,  hints  to,  47-49. 

Income,  of  schools,  16. 

Information,  sources  of  accu- 
rate, 49. 

Initiator,  teacher   as,   67-68. 

Illustration,  application  of,  35. 

Interest,  development  of,  75; 
workers  represent,  45. 

Knowledge  vs.  guesswork  in 
business,  20. 

Leaders,  lack  of,  17;  school  or 

church,  17-18. 
Leadership,  68;  qualities  of,  68, 
Library,    need    of    community, 

69. 
Literature,  adjustment  of,  60. 

Massachusetts,  Worcester 

county,  33. 
Maps,    data,    51;    general,    51; 

population,  51. 
Material,  suggestive  survey,  44. 
Mistakes,  fear  of,  58-59. 

Normal  School,  function  of,  81. 

Normal  School  students,  criti- 
cism of,  81;  lack  of  uniform 
preparation  in,  81. 

Ohio  surveys,  25;  charts  of,  22- 
24. 


Organizations,  choosing  of,  for 
survey,  46;  surveys  by,  45-46. 

People,  settlement  of  questions 

by,  62-63. 
Personal  element,  appeal  of,  76. 
Politics      and     government, 

knowledge  of,  62. 
Prejudice,  possibility  of,  47. 
Preparation,  inadequacy  of,  78. 
President  George  Gunton,  quo- 
tations from,  64. 
Principles,    three    fundamental, 

74 ;     Necessary     explanations 

of,  58. 
Problem,  rural,  13. 
Procedure,     methods     of,     for 

survey,  45-46. 
Professional    work,    proportion 

of,  77. 
Program,  need  of  constructive, 

74. 

Questions,    for  teachers,   36-38. 

Research,  accuracy  of,  20. 
Rural  development,  obstacles  to, 

75-76. 
Rural    schools,    importance   of, 

15. 
Rural    Social    Center,    essential 

features  of,  68-69. 

Salaries,  need  of  larger,  75. 
Sauk    Prairie    Farmer's    Club, 

70. 
School,    responsibility    of,    67; 

special  activities  of,  41. 
School-house,  use  of,  72. 
School  plant,  need  of  good,  75. 
Service,  need  of,  38. 
Social  activities,  agency  for,  17. 
Social    and    economic    agencies, 

cooperation    of    school    with, 

72. 
Social  Center — a  movement  for 

right    enjoyment,    71;    desir- 


Index 


91 


ability  of,  67;  starting  of,  70; 
illustration  of,  70;  object  of, 
71. 

Social  science,  need  of  knowl- 
edge of,  63-64. 

Specific  application,  need  of, 
73. 

Students,  electives  for,  63; 
Normal  School,  81. 

Suggestions,  sample,  to  helpers, 
47-49. 

Supervision,  78-79;  trained,  58; 
requirements   for,  79. 

Survey,  accuracy  of,  19;  appli- 
cation of,  35;  church,  23-31; 
city,  20-21;  cooperation  in, 
43-44;  detailed  items  of,  26; 
educational,  27;  means  and 
end  of,  50;  machinery  of,  44- 
47;  method  of,  43;  plan  of, 
25-26;  religious  and  educa- 
tional, 25;  rural  life,  21; 
sources  of  material  for,  44; 
Ohio,  '25;  the  beginning  of, 
20;  value  of  the,  32-33. 

SjTnpathy,  development  of,  76. 

Tact  and  Facts,  59. 

Teacher,  and  survey,  40;  com- 


munity questions  for,  36-38; 
examinations  for,  78;  earn- 
ing capacity  of,  42;  former 
tests  of,  80;  initiation  on  part 
of,  67-68;  leadership  of,  68; 
nature  of  training  for,  82; 
need  of  capability  of,  38;  as 
part  of  the  rural  movement, 
18,  76;  requirements  for,  83; 
self-confidence  of,  59;  signifi- 
cance of,  16,  76;  specializa- 
tion for,  82;  training  and 
academic  work  of,  80-81 ; 
three  limitations  on  time  of, 
41-43;  time  of,  41;  two  tasks 
of,  55. 

Technical  questions,  need  of, 
13-14. 

Taylor,  illustrations  from,  33- 
34. 

Training,  nature  of  teacher's, 
80;  professional,  77-78. 

Training  schools,  77. 

Weakness,  economic  and  social, 

67. 
Worcester  county,  Mass.,  33. 
Work,   preparation   for,  64. 
Workers,  to  obtain,  45. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


NOV 

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JAN 

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JUN     4  199r 


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UCLA-Young   Research   Library 

LB1567  .L58 


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